Grace Theological
Journal 11.2 (1990) 187-204.
digitally prepared for use at
Gordon and
THE QUATRAIN IN
ISAIANIC POETRY*
JOHN E. WORGUL
Isaiah was a master of Hebrew poetry as well as a grand theo-
logian. He was fond of integrating couplets into various
four-lined
structures (i.e., quatrains) that fall into three basic categories.
This
integration was often achieved by sophisticated interplay on the gram-
matical, semantic, and rhetorical levels. What is of deeper significance,
however, is that Isaiah used these poetic forms to enhance his theologi-
cal meaning. By activating all levels of language, the prophet
was able
to impress God's word upon his hearers in compact, four-lined struc-
tures that would otherwise take many lines of prose to
communicate.
*
* *
ALTHOUGH
the pairing of lines by means of grammatical, semantic
and rhetorical parallelism to form couplets is the
basic feature of
Isaianic poetry, the pairing of couplets to form
quatrains is also a
distinctive device used by Isaiah.1 In
this article, we will differentiate
and categorize these structures, but will also see
how Isaiah uses them
to communicate his message by artfully blending
form with meaning.
Before we start with the analysis of
the quatrains, some preliminary
considerations are in order. Basic to
the goal stated above is the
position that a methodology of analyzing parallel
lines must be able to
account for both grammatical and semantic
parallelism, and the rhetor-
ical effect as well. It is
our intention to avoid stressing one aspect of
parallelism over another.2 The method
employed here, which was
*This
article is based on the results of an analysis of 529 lines of Isaianic verse in my
unpublished dissertation Parallelism in the Poetry
of Isaiah 1-18, written for the Dropsie
College, 1986.
l
Out of the 529 lines there were 208 units: 127 independent couplets, 42
quatrains,
29
triplets, 8 single lines and two possible hexastichs.
2 See S. Geller,
("Theory and Method in the study of Biblical Poetry," JQR LXXIII
No.1
[1986]) 65-77. With regard to the debate over which aspect
has primacy, A.
blood is helpful, for one is surely meaningless
without the other. See A. Berlin, The
dynamics of Biblical Parallelism (Bloomington: Indiana University, 1985)
23-25, 64.
188
GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL
adapted from Stephen Geller's Parallelism in Early Biblical Poetry
(Missoula,
Montana: Scholars Press, 1979) is an attempt to account
for parallelism on these levels.3
Central to the method is a device called
a "schema," which will be explained
below.
The lines used in the analysis had
to meet certain criteria.4 The
first is that the lines analyzed should be regarded
as Isaianic by most
scholars.5 Secondly, the lines
must be "highly parallelistic" as opposed
to prose without any parallelistic
features (e.g., 7:1-6, 10-17 and 8:1-
4),
or prose that contains parallelistic features,
referred to here as
"parallelistic prose" (e.g.,
12).
What exactly constitutes "highly parallelistic" lines is a subject of
ongoing debate. For our purposes we have
delimited this category to
lines that display a basic grammatical and semantic
correspondence6
coupled with the limitation of line length,7
and the requirement that
the parallel lines are relatively equal in length.
The vast majority of
Isaianic lines fall in this highly parallelistic category. Finally, the lines
used had to be textually sound in the opinion of a
consensus of
scholars.8
Although the corpus was not subjected
to a metrical analysis,9
certain patterns of line length emerged. The
term "line pattern" denotes
the ratio of grammatical units in one line to
another. "Grammatical
unit" is a term used to denote a word that is
significant in the structure
of parallel verse (i.e., words that are objects of
parallelism). Some
words, such as particles (e.g., yKi and Mxi) are not used as objects
of
parallelism in the corpus and are therefore not
awarded the status of
"grammatical unit."10 For example, a couplet
with three grammatical
units in each line would be referred to as a
"3:3" line pattern. An
example would be 17:10A-B:
3 My debt to Stephen
Geller is evident throughout this article.
4 It was felt that a
minimum of 500 lines would offer an adequate representation of
Isaianic
parallelism.
5 Our corpus is based
upon what S. R. Driver, O. Eissfeldt, G. Foher, G. B. Gray and
J.
Skinner, among others, unanimously considered to be Isaianic.
This does not reflect
the present writer's opinion of Isaianic
authorship.
6 This excludes, for
example,
equal lines, they are all grammatically enjambed and semantically non-parallel.
7 Or "terse,"
cf. J. Kugel, The
Idea of Biblical Poetry (
Press, 1981) 85.
8 The passages ultimately
included were 1:2-27, 29-31, 2:7-8, 10-17, 19, 21, 3:1-5,
12C-26,
4:1, 5:1-28, 6:7B-D, 8B-C, 9-13B, 7:7B-9, 8:9-10, 13-15, 9:7-13, 15-17B,
19-20,
10:1-4,6-9, 13-15, 17:1, 2B-C, 3A-B, 4-6, 10-14, 18:1-2D, 3-6.
9 It is not denied that Isaianic poetry is "metrical" in some sense.
Rather, an in-depth
metrical analysis would confront many uncertainties
which would require a major study
of its own.
10 See Geller, p. 8.
WORGUL: THE QUATRAIN.IN ISAIANIC POETRY 189
Text of 17:10A-D
Translation
A. j`few;y; yhelox<
T;HakawA yKi For you have forgotten the God of
your salvation,
B. T;r;KAzA xlo j`z.efumA rUcv; and the rock of your
refuge you do
not remember.
In
this couplet we see that each of the three basic grammatical units in
the A line have a grammatical counterpart in the B
line (verb: T;HakawA
yKi
/
/ T;r;kazA
xlo and a direct object with a noun in construct: j`few;yi yhelox< / /
j`z.efumA
rUcv;), which are semantically parallel as well (the verbs are
synonymous and the direct objects are epithets in
that they give descrip-
tion one to another). Here
we should note that aside from a very few
instances of grammatical rearrangement, often done
for a rhetorical
effect (e.g.,
cal and semantic correspondence between units in
the parallel line
structures in Isaiah.11
Isaianic
quatrains, like the couplets,12 come in a
variety of line
patterns. Some, like 5:27A -D below, consist
predominantly of lines
with two grammatical units.13
Text of 5:27A-D
Translation
A. JyefA
Nyxe None is weary,
B.
C. MUnyA
xlo none slumbers,
D. NwAyyi
xlov; none sleeps.
It
may be objected, of course, that what we have here is really a 5:4
couplet rather than a 2:3:2:2 quatrain.14
Granted that it is not always
11 However, see the few
examples of the "semantic" quatrains below, which display
semantic parallelism with little or no
grammatical parallelism.
12 Among the couplets
alone there were 10 different line patterns: the 2:2, 2:3, 3:2,
3:3,
3:4,4:3, 4:2, 4:4, 5:3 and the 5:2. Of these, the 3:3 and the 3:2 were the most
common,
but there were a significant number of "short
lined" couplets (There were 27 occurrences
of the 2:2. For example, see 1:23A-B, 2:l0A-B,
5:3C-D, 7:9C-D, and 8:9C-D).
13 Some other examples of
quatrains with predominantly 2 unit lines are 1:18C-F,
1:19A-20B,
1:29A-D, 5:5C-F, 5:7E-H, 5:9B-E, 5:12D-G, 6:9B-E, 9:9A-D, 17:6C-G.
14 The negative
existential particle Nyxe is considered a
grammatical unit in the corpus
since it functions as the predicate of a noun
sentence throughout. The A line therefore
consists of two grammatical units and the B line
three units, for prepositions with
suffixes (e.g.,
with the negative particle xlo which usually functions as a proclitic
and forms a unit with
the following term (hence not an independent
grammatical unit, cf. T;r;cAzA
xlo, in 17:10B
above). In this instance, however, xlo, parallels Nyxe on the semantic level and occupies the
same emphatic position in the parallel line
structure. It is therefore given a grammatical
unit status in lines C and D.
190
GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL
easy to determine a couplet from a quatrain, two
facts tend to discount
understanding these lines as a couplet.
First, long lines (i.e., lines with
four or more units) without a caesura are relatively
uncommon in
Isaiah (see footnote 12 above). That is, Isaiah tends
to use shorter three
or two unit lines.15 Secondly there are
clear grammatical caesuras that
naturally break this text into four short, distinct
phrases. Indeed, in
this instance the brief, hurried line structure
enhances Isaiah's descrip-
tion of these swift,
relentless destroyers. As we shall see, this is not the
only place where Isaiah uses form to enhance his
meaning.
With this example we begin our study of the Isaianic quatrain. As
we mentioned at the outset, the quatrain is
essentially two couplets
bound together. This "binding" is done in a
variety of ways, and with
the help of a continuum we can see that three basic
quatrain patterns
emerge. On one end of the continuum there is what we
shall call the
"interlocked" quatrains in which the two sets of paired
lines are inter-
twined (hence "interlocked") in such a way
that the quatrain must be
viewed as one unit. This interlocking is the result of
alternating or
chiastic patterns in which parallel lines are
separated from each other
(ie.,
ABA'B', ABB'A').16 In the middle of the continuum there are the
"integrated" quatrains. Here the parallelism is usually
between the A
and B lines and between the C and D lines, but it is
obvious that all
four lines are parallel on the basis of grammatical,
semantic and
usually rhetorical similarities (ie., [A//A']//[A"//A"']). These
struc-
tures are not considered to
be as tightly bound as the "interlocked"
types, for they can be analyzed as two couplets
without obscuring the
overall structure of the quatrain. Finally, at
the end of the continuum
we have the "semantic" quatrains in which,
like the "integrated"
quatrains above, the primary parallelism is
between the A and B lines,
and between the C and D lines, but the parallelism
between the paired
couplets is basically semantic and/ or rhetorical,
with no grammatical
parallelism.17 Let us consider the
tightest quartrains on the one end of
the continuum, and proceed to the looser structures
at the other end.
15 Isaiah's use of the short, 2 unit line
in couplets, triplets, and quatrains (often in
association with 3 unit lines, e.g., a 3:2:2 triplet)
is a characteristic that sets him apart
from early Hebrew poetry. See Geller, pp. 282-84.
16 That is, the A line parallels the C line
and the B the D line in the alternating type,
and the A line parallels the D line and the B the C
line in the chiastic type.
17 This is a small category, for as noted
above, Isaiah tends to employ lines that are
parallel on both the grammatical and semantic
levels. These quatrains are considered the
"loosest" of the quatrains on the continuum because of
the lack of grammatical parallel-
ism. It should be emphasized again that grammar, although
an important aspect of
parallelism, is but one aspect, and the more aspects
implemented (i.e., grammar, seman-
tics, rhetorical devices), the "tighter"
the parallelism. There are no examples of quatrains
grammatically parallel with no
semantic parallelism.
WORGUL: THE QUATRAIN IN ISAIANIC POETRY 191
ALTERNATING AND CHIASTIC
STRUCTURES
Judging from the abundance of examples, the
alternating quatrain
must be considered a favorite Isaianic
device.18 In half of the examples
analyzed,19 the grammatical and
semantic correspondence is complete
between the alternating lines in that each unit,
or group of units (i.e.,
word compounds) is grammatically and semantically
parallel to its
corresponding unit. To gain a clear
and convenient view of the paral-
lelism between these units, we
employ what we term a "schema." This
is a purely heuristic device intended to display syntagmatic and para-
digmatic structures.20
It merely arranges the syntax (syntagmatic/
horizontal level) of the lines so that the parallel
units can be placed
vertically (paradigmatic level). By means of this
device, one may ob-
serve at a glance the grammatical and semantic
parallelism between the
parallel lines. 1:10A-D will allow us to
illustrate the use of the schema
as well as offer an example of
"complete" parallelism.
Text of
1:10A-D Translation
A.
hvAhy;-rbad; Ufm;wi Hear
the word of YHWH
B.
Mdos;
yneyciq; you rulers of
C.
Unyhelox<
traOt UnyzixEha Listen to the teaching of our God,
D.
hrAmofE Mfa you people of
Schema of 1:10A-D
A.
hvAhy; rbad; Ufmawi
B.
Mdos; yneyciq;
C. Unyhelox<
traOt UnyzixEha
D.
hrAmofE Mfa
The
imperatives and the direct objects of the A and C lines correspond
grammatically and semantically (Ufm;wi / / UnyzixEha: synonyms, rbad; / /
traOt: synonyms, hvAhy; / / Unyhelox<: epithet), as do the
subjects in the B and
18 See 1:10A-D, 1:15A-D, 1:18C-F,
1:19A-20B, 1:29A-D, 2:7A-D (a pentastich?),
5:5C-F,
5:7E-H, 5:9B-E, 5:10A-D, 5:11A-D, 5:12D-G, 6:9B-E, 9:9A-D, 17:6C-G,
17:12A-D.
19 Cf. 1:10A-D, 1:19A-20B, 1:29A-D, 2:7A-D
(a pentastich?), 5:5C-F, 5:12D-G,
6:9B-E,
9:9A-D.
20 Cf. S. Geller's
"reconstructed sentence," pp. 15-21.
192
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THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL
D
lines (yneyciq; / / Mfa: part-whole,21 Mdos; / / hrAmofE: paradigmatic ).22 The
parallelism is therefore complete, and the quatrain,
by virtue of the
alternation (ABA'B'), must be considered as one unit
of four lines, and
cannot be analyzed as two couplets or as four single
lines.23 It is
therefore a very tight quatrain.
In the other half of the examples of alternating
quatrains, one
finds that a word that is in one line (usually the A
line) is deleted in its
parallel line (C line), but is nevertheless
understood in that line to
complete its meaning. On a deeper level of
linguistic analysis, however,
this parallelism does not really differ from the
complete parallelism in
the example above, for the deleted word is
necessary to the meaning of
the line. This phenomenon of word deletion,
referred to here as "ellip-
sis”24 is illustrated by the quatrain in
5:7E-H.
Text of 5:7E-H
Translation
A.
FPAw;mil; vqay;va and He looked for justice,
B.
HPAW;mi hn.ehiv; but behold, bloodshed;
C.
hqAdAc;li for
righteousness,
D.
hqAfAc;
hn.ehifv but
behold, a cry!25
Shema of 5:7 E-H
A.
FPAw;mil; vqay;va
B.
HPAW;mi hne.hiv;
C.
hqAdAc;li
D.
hqAfAc; hn.ehiv;
21 The yneyciq; may be considered a
part of the whole (Mfa), or the relationship
between
the two words may be described as a merism (i.e., establishing the two extremes
"rulers"
and "common people," and implying
everyone in between).
22 Words related paradigmatically belong to
the same semantic field in that they
denote a common concept, or in other words, are
related by an understood common
denominator. In this example, the stock word pair Mdos; and hrAmofE belong to the same
paradigm of "wicked cities."
23 The phenomenon of line parallelism,
whether involving 2, 3,4 or more lines, must
be considered normative for Isaianic
verse structure. This is so because the independent,
single line is rare and its very existence is
debatable (e.g., 1:15E; see footnote 1).
24 This phenomenon has also been referred
to as "gapping." See E. L. Greenstein
("Two
variations of Grammatical Parallelism in Canaanite Poetry and their Psycho-
linguistic Background," JANES of Columbia University, 6[1974])
94.
25 This quatrain is primarily an
alternating quatrain in that the A and C lines, and
the B and D lines are grammatically identical and
semantically parallel (even semantically
identical in the repetition of hne.hiv; in the Band D lines).
It is however, "integrated" as well
in that the A and B lines, and the C and D lines
are semantically and rhetorically parallel
WORGUL: THE QUATRAIN IN ISAIANIC POETRY 193
It
is obvious that vqay;va is understood with the prepositional phrase in the
C
line, for the C line would be incomplete without it. For all practical
purposes, therefore, we must conclude that there
is very little difference
between the alternating quatrains with ellipsis
and alternating quatrains
that are "completely" parallel, for the
grammatical and semantic paral-
lelism is complete in both,
even though one line may have an additional
grammatical unit that its parallel line does not
have.26
Rarely, Isaiah may vary the grammar of one line
to achieve a
certain poetic effect. The quatrain in
Text of 5:11A-D Translation
A. rq,Boba ymeyKiw;ma yOh Woe!27 those who rise early in the
morning,
B.
UpDor;yi
rkAwe that they may
run after beer,28
C.
Jw,n.,ba yreHExam; who tarry late in the
evening,
D.
Mqeylid;ya Nyiya till
wine inflames them.
Schema of 5:11A-D
A.
rq,Boba ymeyKiw;ma yOh
B.
UpDor;yi rkAwe
C.
Jw,n.,ba yreHExam;
D.
Mqeylid;ya Nyiya
Apart
from the interjection yOh, the A and C lines are
grammatically
identical (both having participles and
prepositional phrases) and
semantically parallel (merism). The yOh may be regarded as extrametri-
cal and applying to the quatrain as a whole, or as
a grammatical unit in
the A line that is understood elliptically (i.e.,
"gapped ") in the C line.
by means of the paranomasia
between HPAW;mi and FPAw;mi, and hqAdAc; and hqAfAc; (similar
sound but opposite meaning).
26 Ellipsis can occur in any line structure
whether they are couplets, triplets, or
quatrains with other types of parallel line patterns.
27 The yOh (as opposed to yOx, which almost always occurs with prepositions l, lfa, or
lx,) is understood by this
writer to be a pure interjection, most probably a cry of funerary
lamentation (the nuance being "woe!" or
"alas!" rather than "woe unto. . ."). Cf. H. W.
Wolff.
A Commentary on the Prophets Joel and
Amos (
1977) 242-45.
28 It is not evident how rkAwe differs from Nyiya, rkAwe almost always occurs
paired with Nyiya
and all but once precedes it. It probably is not
liquor (usually translated "strong drink"),
for there is no evidence of distillation in ancient
times. Here it is understood to be a
beer-perhaps a grain beer as opposed
to wine. Cf. R. L. Harris, Ed., Theological
Wordbook of the Old
Testament,
2 vols. (Chicago: Moody Press, 1980).
194
GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL
But
what is of immediate interest is that the grammar of the D line is
not what one would expect after having read the B
line. The reader,
having encountered a direct object and a transitive verb
in the B line, is
now surprised to find the noun as a subject in the
D line. This probably
was not done just for variation, but rather to set
up a pun on the verb
jld. This root has a double
meaning: that of "burn" or "inflame" (cf.
Ezek
24:10) and "hotly pursue" (cf. Gen 31:36). In this context, the
primary meaning is no doubt "inflame,"
but it must not be overlooked
that jld (in the Qal) is a synonym of Jdr in the B line, having
the latter
nuance of "pursuing.”29 The pun is
that the drinkers, making a fresh
start in the morning and in full control (they are
the subjects of UpDor;yi in
the B line), are pursuing beer in the first
couplet. However, by evening
the situation is reversed. Wine is now in control
(it is the subject of the
D
line) and is the pursuer in the second couplet. We see that the poet is
actually combining grammar and line structure
with the meaning
(semantic nuances jld and the morning-evening
merism) to impress
an image upon his hearers of these ambitious
fellows; they set out at
the first light of dawn to make bold conquests of
beer, but by evening
they are stumbling their way back home with wine,
the real victor in
the contest, hard at their heels. By such
synthesis, Isaiah is able to
communicate a profoundly effective caricature in four
short lines that
would take many more lines of prose to describe.
The chiastic quatrain is not so well represented
as the alternating
quatrain and must therefore be considered less
characteristic of Isaianic
quatrain devices. Out of the four possible examples
(1:11C-F, 5:6A-
D,
5:7 A-D and 6:11B-C), there are no line structures as clear as the
alternating line structures mentioned above. Be this
as it may, the
prophet will use chiasm as a device to tighten
other types of quatrains.
Perhaps
the tightest quatrain in Isaiah is the famous one in 1:18:
Text of 1:18C-F Translation
A.
Myniw.AKa
Mk,yxeFAHE Uyh;yi-Mxi If your sins are like
scarlet,
B. UnyBil;ya
gl,w.,Ka shall they be white as
snow?
C.
flAOTka
UmyDix;ya-Mxi If
they are red like crimson,
D.
Uyh;yi rm,c,.Ka shall they become like wool?
29 On a deep level an underlying
grammatical parallelism is evident if one rewrites
the Hiph singular imperfect Mqeylid;ya to the Qal plural imperfect Uql;d;yi (dropping the 3 m pl
suffix), with the second meaning of the verb's root
"pursue" understood. Both the B and
D
lines would then have nouns functioning as subjects of plural imperfect verbs.
For
such grammatical "transformations," see
Geller, pp. 21-29.
WORGUL: THE QUATRAIN IN ISAIANIC POETRY 195
Schema of 1:18C-F
A.
Myniw.AKa
Mk,yxeFAHE Uyh;yi-Mxi
B.
UnyBil;ya gl,w.,Ka
C.
flAOTka UmyDix;ya-Mxi
D.
Uyh;yi rm,c.,Ka
This
quatrain has a primarily alternating structure (note the ellipsis of
Mk,yxeFAHE, in the C line). However, chiasm can be
observed on two levels.
First,
there is the chiastic verb, prepositional phrase, prepositional
phrase, verb structure within both the AB couplet and
the CD couplet.
The
result is that the prepositional phrases take the central, or inside,
position in the overall structure of the
quatrain, while the verbs are at
the extremities. Secondly, a further chiasm can be
observed between
the verb Uyh;yi in the A and D lines,
and the Hiph
imperfects of the B and
C lines. The inclusio
of Uyh;yi further tightens the
quatrain. What must
be determined at this point is whether or not this
structure is in fact a
vehicle to further the meaning of this quatrain.
To begin with, we
understand that the poet's intention is to offer a
well-reasoned, or
"tight" argument to the people (verse 18A: hHAk;UAniv; xnA-Ukl;). Certainly the
skill in which he blends alternation with chiasm to
produce such a tight
structure enhances the meaning he wished to
convey; that YHWH's
terms are so tightly logical and reasonable that
there is no room for
objection. But can we go further and suggest that
the form may even be
valuable in the actual interpretation of this
quatrain? It is well-known
that the B and D lines can be understood either as statements
(i.e.,
"they shall be white as snow/wool") or as questions, as
in the above
translation. The difficulty with the former
interpretation is that it is not
evident how or why red sins (sins of bloodshed,
cf. verse 5) should
become "white sins." Such an ambiguity in
what one would expect to
be a well-reasoned argument is out of place.
Rather, it is more fitting in
this context of tight logic to understand the B and
D lines as rhetorical
questions, expecting negative answers (cf. Jer
presenting His argument, YHWH is backing the people
into a corner
by reminding them of their bloody guilt in crimes
that cannot be left
unpunished by law. Tightness of form mirrors
inexorability of logical
argument.
By itself therefore, this quatrain would leave
the people with little
comfort. However, this quatrain was never meant
to be read by itself as
30 It is admissible that
these lines be regarded as questions without interrogative
pronouns or adverbs (see G-K 150 a).
196
GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL
is evident by its close similarities of structure
with the next lines, which
also form an alternating quatrain.
Text of 1:19A-B-20A-B Translation
B.
UlkexTo
Cr,xAhA bUF you will eat of the good of the land.
D.
UlK;xuT; br,H, you will be devoured by the sword.
Schema of 1:19A-B--20A-B
A.
UbxTo-Mxi
MT,f;maw;U31
B.
Ulkexto Cr,xAhA bUF
C.
UnxEmAT;-Mxi
MT,yrim;U
D.
UlK;xuT; br,H,
The
continuation of the particle Mxi and the similar
"outside" position
of the imperfect verbs with the alliterative t / x combination (rhetor-
ical considerations) forces
the reader to connect the two quatrains on
the semantic level (i.e., meaning) as well. Indeed,
this quatrain brings
us into the second phase of YHWH's
argument. In spite of their guilt,
if they are willing and obey, then they shall eat
the good of the land.
The
alliteration and assonance between UbxTo and bUF further strength-
ens the reasonableness and
attractiveness of a willing heart toward
God. However, if they refuse and rebel, then they
shall be "the eaten"
rather than "the eaters." With this pun
between UlkexTo and UlK;xuT;,32
which occupies the final position in this two
quatrain unit, we reach the
31 Note that two grammatical units are
parallel within the same line (i.e., "internal
parallelism") and are placed in the same column
of the schema.
32 The UlK;xuT; of the D line is most
probably a Qal passive (see G-K 52 e). Usually,
br,H, is understood prepositionally either by reading brHB (cf. lQIsa) or by considering it
as an accusative functioning prepositionally
in a passive construction (for details see
G-K 121 c). Some prefer to emend the verb to UlkexTo (you shall eat the sword), but this
has no versional support
and is not idiomatic to Hebrew which would prefer the br,H, as
the subject (cf. 2 Kgdms
"carob" (a poor man's food) in late Hebrew and Aramaic,
but this word is not used
elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible and such a reading
involves the emendation of the passive
verb as well as br,H,. However, it is
possible that Isaiah was making a pun on br,H, and
bUrHa.
WORGUL:
THE QUATRAIN IN ISAIANIC POETRY 197
Isaiah
altered the grammar of the D line to achieve this pun. One
would expect UlkexoT rather than the passive
UlK;xuT; to parallel the UlkexTo
of the B line, with br,H,, a direct object,
paralleling Cr,xAhA
bUF. By
reversing the expected grammar (i.e., active to
passive) the alternative
of eating rather than being eaten is underscored.
The tightness of the
two quatrain unit is further enhanced by the inclusio of the hvAhy;
rmaxyo
and the rBeDi
hvAhy; of the 20C line.
The "interlocked" quatrain is an
important Isaianic poetic device.
Most
characteristic of it is the alternating quatrain (ABA'B'; 16 clear
examples in the corpus), although there is
evidence of chiastic structures
(4 possible examples), and at times a mixture of
both.
Also there is a
basic grammatical and semantic correspondence between
word units of
the parallel lines in spite of ellipsis and an
occasional grammatical
rearrangement. Often, Isaiah will use
this "interlocked" structure, along
with grammatical and rhetorical forms, to enhance
the meaning of his
oracle.
II. THE "INTEGRATED" QUATRAIN
The combination of couplets whose parallel lines
are not actually
intertwined but are associated by virtue of grammatical,
semantic and
often rhetorical parallelism is common in Isaiah.33
Usually, all four
lines are grammatically and semantically parallel,
although in a few
instances one line, either the A line or the D
line, is non-parallel (A
line: 1:18A-D, 1:14A-D, 10:8A-9C; D line: 17:5A-D).
These quatrains
occupy the center of the continuum, for they are
somewhat less bound
than the "interlocked" type in that the
primary parallelism is often
between the A and B lines, and between the C and
D lines. (They
therefore could be analyzed as two couplets
without blurring the
overall structure, unlike the alternating
quatrains.) The oft analyzed
quatrain in 1:3 illustrates this type.34
Text of 1 :3A -D Translation
A.
Uhneqo
rOw fdayA The ox knows its owner,
B.
vylAfAB;
sUbxe rOmHEva and the ass its master's crib,
C.
fdayA
xlo lxerAW;yi
(but)
D.
NnAOBt;hi xlo
ym.ifa my
people do not understand.
33 There are at least 15 clear examples of
this in my corpus: 1:3A-D, 1:4A-D,
1:7A-D,
l:8A-D, 1:14A-D, 3:3A-D (list), 3:16C-F, 3:24A-D,
5:27A-D, 7:8, 7:9,
8:9:A-D, 8:13A-D, 10:3A-D, 10:8A-9C, 10:14A-D, 10:15A-D?,
17:5A-D, 17:10A-D?
34 Cf. J. Kugel's treatment of this quatrain in Idea, 9.
198
GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL
Schema of 1:3A-D
A.
Uhneqo rOW fdayA
B. vylAfAB;
sUbxe rOmHEva
C.
lxerAW;yi fdayA xlo
D.
ymi.fa NnAOBt;hi xlo
On
the surface, the primary grammatical and semantic parallelism is
between the A and B lines, and between the C and
D lines. In the AB
couplet, both lines have direct objects (rOw and rOmHE) that are seman-
tically parallel (both are farm
animals). In the CD couplet, both lines
have negatives with verbs (fdayA xlo
and NnAOBt;Hi xlo)
that are semantically
parallel (both express
grammatically parallel in spite of
the fact that not all elements (i.e.,
verb, subject, direct object) are in each of the
four lines except the A
line. However, below the surface, we see that
grammar, semantics and
rhetorical devices all contribute to give a deeper
perception of
condition. What Isaiah has done was to make use of
the simple form of
a quatrain to create a rather complex message
that unfolds when one
examines the similarities and contrasts between
the grammatical units
of the parallel lines. To begin with, it will be
noticed that all four lines
have a subject which associates senseless beasts
(the subjects of the AB
couplet) with
level. The similarity between the beasts and
ened on the phonetic level
by the alliteration of the sibilants w / W and
the r in rOw and lxerAW;yi, and the gutturals H / f with the m in rOmHE and
ym.ifa. However, one is
encouraged not to stop at this unflattering asso-
ciation, for one is invited to
contemplate the contrasts as well as the
similarities. But what is the basic
contrast between these beasts and
as opposed to
range that includes knowledge on the emotional and
volitional levels
(and therefore associated with obedience and piety) as well
as on the
intellectual level, its parallel is
with NnAOBt;hi, which clearly implies
actual
knowledge or perception derived from examination.
Moreover, the
contrast between
intelligence, rather than
faithfulness, is the issue, for oxen, as far as we
can tell, were known for their fidelity, loyalty
and obedience.36 Since
oxen are relatively uncommon to the experience of
many western
35 J. Skinner, The Book of the Prophet Isaiah, Chapters I-XXXIX (
36 In contrast to the Myre (wild ox) that is not dependable like the domesticated ox
(see
Job
39:9-12).
WORGUL:
THE QUATRAIN IN ISAIANIC POETRY 199
urbanites, perhaps Lassie would offer us a more
vivid image. One
would not say: "even Lassie is faithful to his
master, he knows his
doggie dish." The comparison with Lassie implies
that the real issue is
not Lassie's fidelity, but intelligence. The point
in our passage is that
even dumb (although faithful) beasts are intelligent
enough to know
something that
cannot be ignorance of God's raising them and that
warded Him by rebelling (verse 2), for the prophets
assumed that
was aware of their special status with YHWH and
their responsibility
to Him. Rather, a moral ignorance is implied, not
of their crimes, but
of the consequences of their crimes, that is,
punishment. This is not
explicit in the text, but is implicit in the
dynamics of the parallelism.37
The
beasts possess a certain cunning with regard to their welfare that
because they are fed. What they know is the
price of disobedience. The
negatives of the D and C lines add a new dimension
to
of their fate. They do not know what the animals
know because they
will not know it. Their ignorance is a willful
ignorance. The stupidity
of such an ignorance is grammatically and
structurally enhanced by the
conspicuously missing direct objects
in the CD couplet. The animals
are fed for their simple logic, for their knowledge
has an object (their
master and his food trough).
object of knowledge and will soon starve (i.e., suffer
punishment). That
prophetic argument (cf. Deut 32:6 "MkAHA xlov;
lbAnA Mfa”).
Another example of this type of quatrain is
found in
Isaiah
is scathing in his description of the daughters of
Text of 3:16C-F Translation
A.
NOrGA
tOUFn; hnAk;laTeva
and they walk with outstretched necks,
B.
MynAyfe tOrq.;Wam;U and
ogle with their eyes,
C.
hnAk;laTe
JpoFAv; j`OlhA mincing along as they go,
D. 38hnAs;KafaT;
Mh,yleg;rab;U tinkling
with their feet.
37 The fact that the overall context of
Isaiah 1 is that of a byri (pronounced
"rev"; it is
the term given for a legal law suit) intensifies
the expectation of judgement in this
quatrain.
38 In spite of the fact that there are
three instances of hapax legomena
in this
quatrain, the precise definitions of which may
not be known, our analysis is not
adversely affected, for the context of these
attention getting actions helps to provide
close enough definitions. The Pi of
the root rqW. refers to some bawdy, wanton look,
unless with Jastrow we
understand it to mean "paint" (cf. rqW.
II, Pi).
The infinitive of
JpF may be onomatopoeic,
related to the little steps taken by children (i.e., "tap," cf.
Gray).
The Pi of skf denotes something done
with the feet which must be related to
some sort of article which makes noise or draws
attention (cf. v. 18 for the noun form).
200
GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL
Schema of 3:16C-F
A.
NOrGA
tOUFn; hnAk;laTeva
B.
MynAyfe
tOrq.;Wam;U
C. JpoFAv;
j`OlhA hnAk;laTe
D. hnAs;KafaT;
Mh,yleg;rab;U
All
four lines are grammatically and semantically parallel. The im-
perfects of jlh, although actually
occurring in the A and C lines, are
"gapped" in the B and D lines as well. Each line
contains a "com-
pound," or a unit consisting of two inseparable
words, that modify the
jlh imperfects: the A and B
lines have participles in construct, the C
line has a compound of two infinitive absolutes, and
the D line contains
a preposition with a verb. These compound
modifiers, which describe
actions while walking, are basically
interchangeable grammatically and
semantically. What is unique about
this quatrain of four parallel lines,
however, is the way in which Isaiah blends
alternation and chiasm into
his overall structure.
Text of 3:16C-F with Couplets
Placed on Same line
NOrGA tOUFn;
hnAk;laTeva / MyinAyfe tOrq.;Wam;U
hnAk;laTe
JpoFAv; j`OlhA / hnAs;KafaT; Mh,yleg;rabaU
We
see that there is a special relationship between the A and C lines
and between the Band D lines (alternation), and
this relationship is
chiastic in nature. The imperfects of jlh are obviously parallel, as are
The
indivisible compounds NOrGA
tOUFn; (extended necks) and JpoFAv;
j`OlhA
(mincing along), which are parallel adverbially on a higher
level. (Note
the assonance of the long O vowels that further
associates these com-
pounds.) Likewise, the participle tOrq.;Wam;U and the verb hnAsKafaT; ("ogling"
and "tinkling") describe similar actions,
and the attention getting MyinAyfe
(eyes) and Mh,yleg;rab;U (feet) are also
parallel. This complex structure
which consists of parallel body parts and
simultaneous actions helps to
enhance our mental picture of these women
skilled in the art of
seduction. It should be noted that the use of
alternation and chiasm
within a quatrain of four parallel lines places this
"integrated" quatrain
very close to the "interlocked" quatrains
on the continuum.
An example of an "integrated" quatrain
that is positioned toward
the other end of the continuum (i.e., the
"loose" end where there is no
grammatical parallelism) is the structure found in
WORGUL: THE QUATRAIN IN ISAIANIC POETRY 201
Text of 10:15A-D
A.
B.
Opynim;
lfa 39rOWm.aha lDeGat;yi Mxe
C. 40< Omyrim;> tx,v; tb,we
JynihAK;
D. Cfe-xlo
hF.,ma MyrihAK;
Translation
A.
Shall the axe boast itself over him who hews with it?
B.
Shall the saw exalt itself over him who wields it?
C.
As if a rod should wield him who lifts it,
D.
as if a staff should lift him who is not wood.
Semantic Diagram of 10:15A-D
A.
a b c
B.
a' b' c'
C.
a" b" c"
D.
a'" b'" c'"
The
grammatical parallelism is very exact within the AB couplet in
that both lines have an interrogative particle, a Hitpa’el
intransitive
verb, a subject and a prepositional phrase. The
grammatical parallelism
within the CD couplet is also exact in that both lines
are prepositional
phrases containing an infinitive construct, a
subject and a direct object.
Although
there is a certain compatibility between these two couplets
(i.e.,
the verbal element in the infinite constructs of the CD couplet
with the intransitive verbs of the AB couplet: the
parallel subjects), it is
evident that the grammatical parallelism is
weak. Rather, the emphasis
of this quatrain is on the semantic parallelism,
for every word on each
line is semantically parallel, as the semantic
diagram shows (using the
standard a b c / / a' b' c' method).
The "integrated" quatrains are better
thought of as two couplets
that are connected grammatically, semantically and
usually rhetorically.
39 rOW.ma is a hapax,
the root of which is rW.n which has the meaning
"saw" in various
Semitic languages.
40 If the v; on the direct object
marker (tx,v;) is original, it may be
explained as a waw
explicativum (see G-K 154 a N 1b).
It is believed by many that the plural vymAyrim; was
subsequently added to make the
reference to YHWH more clear (i.e., the "plural of
majesty,"
cf. Gray, p. 202; G-K 124 k; note also the singular in the versions).
202
GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL
Some,
like the
grammatically "tighter"
than others of its class (e.g.,
are therefore closer to the "interlocked"
end of the continuum. We now
consider the "semantic" quatrains at
the "loose" end of the continuum.
III. THE
"SEMANTIC" QUATRAIN
There are fewer instances in which the
connection between the two
couplets is completely semantic and/ or
rhetorical, resulting in corre-
spondingly looser relationships.41
18:6A-D provides an example.
Text of 18:6A -D
A.
MyrihA
Fyfel; vDAH;ya
Ubz;fAye
B.
Cr,xAhA
tmah<g,l;U
C.
FyifahA
vylAfA CqAv;
D.
JrAH<T,
vylAfA Cr,xAhA
tmah<B,-lkAv;
Translation
A.
They shall all be left to the birds of prey of the mountains,
B.
and to the beasts of the earth;
C.
and the birds of prey will spend the winter on them,
D.
and the beasts of the earth will spend the harvest on them.42
There
is no grammatical parallelism between the AB couplet and the
CD couplet. The result is that the attention of the
reader is auto-
matically drawn away from the
comparison of lines and repetitive
grammatical units between couplets, which sets this
quatrain apart
from the interlocked and integrated types. Rather,
the reader is drawn
to a more general comparison of the two couplets
on the semantic
level, and upon examination, it is evident that the
CD couplet explains
in more detail the meaning of the AB couplet
(general-specific relation-
ship). The repetition of "birds of the
mountains" and "beasts of the
earth" is purely semantic (i.e., they are
prepositions in the AB couplet,
but subjects in the CD couplet). The quatrain is
therefore categorized
as "semantic." It should be noted that
rhetorical features such as
alternation (A and C lines-birds; Band D
lines-beasts; note also the
41 There are four examples in the corpus: 1:6C-F,
1:13A-D, 1:31A-D, and 18:6A-D.
42 The verbal denominatives CqA and JrAH<T, occur only here. To
remain consistent with
the vine metaphor in the preceding verses 4 and 5,
it is understood here that the ruined
vines (i.e., the Ethiopians) will become a barren
haunt of wild birds and beasts year
around, rather than become carrion for these
creatures.
WORGUL: THE QUATRAIN IN ISAIANIC POETRY 203
chiasm in the CD couplet--summer, birds, beasts,
winter), and allitera-
tion (the profusion of
gutturals throughout all four lines) serve to
strengthen the connection between these two
couplets.
Finally, at the end of the continuum is an
interesting example in
which two couplets form a somewhat loose quatrain
primarily on the
rhetorical level.
Text
of 1:6 C- F Translation
A.
hrAUBHav;
fcaP, (but) bruises and blows,
B 43hy.AriF;
hKAmaU and raw wounds;
C.
UwBAHu
xlov;44 Urzo
xlo they are not pressed
out, nor bound up,
D. Nm,w.ABa
hkAK;ru xlov; nor softened with oil.
Schema of 1:6 C- F (so
as to show the rhetorical structure)
A.
hrAUBHav; fcaP,
B.
hy.AriF;
hKAmaU
C.
UwBAHu xlov; Urzo xlo
D.
Nm,w.ABa
hkAK;ru xlov;
The
AB couplet and the CD couplet are essentially two lists placed
together. Each list contains three elements, two
of which are internal in
the first lines of their respective couplets (i.e.,
internal parallelism in the
A and C lines). The two lists are not grammatically
parallel to each
other in that the first consists of nouns while the
second consists of
verbal phrases. Only secondarily are the two couplets
semantically
parallel (i.e., general-specific relationship:
the CD couplet gives more
information on the AB couplet). Rather, the primary
parallelism is
structural and phonetic. Structurally, as already
noted, these two
couplets are lists, and these lists are of
increasing length. That is, the
first unit of both couplets is the shortest (fcaP, and Urzo xlo). The second is
a bit larger (hrAUBHav; and UwBHu xlov;). The third is the
largest and most
grammatically involved (hY.AriF; hKAmaU and Nm,w.AB
hkAK;ru xlov;). Corresponding
to this increasing unit length is a semantic
progression, most evident in
the last line of each couplet where the picture is
made more vivid by the
adjective and adverb (i.e., raw, open, hardening
wounds). Phonology
also serves to connect the corresponding units of
these two couplets
(the c of fcaP, and the z of Urzo are both sibilants; the H, b sequence in
43 The attributive is used elsewhere only
in Judg
(i.e., a fresh jawbone rather than an old,
brittle one).
Here the idea is "newly opened" or
"raw." Note the use of collective singulars in the AB
couplet.
204
GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL
hrAUBHav;
and UwBAHu; the doubled K in hKAma and hkAK;ru together with the hkA
endings). These obvious rhetorical features are
not only the main ingre-
dients that hold this quatrain
together structurally, but also intensify
the meaning.
blows that are not bound up, and raw wounds that are
not softened
with oil. The increasing unit length underscores the
semantic progres-
sion that describes an
infection that is progressing beyond a cure.
CONCLUSION
Although this study is not based on a complete
analysis of all of
Isaiah's
material, we can nevertheless observe certain features of the
Isaianic
quatrain emerging.
First of all, we may ascertain the different
types of couplet combinations he employs, and gain a
general idea of
the frequency of these types. Making use of the
continuum, we noticed
that at one end the "interlocked"
quatrain, most usually of the alternat-
ing type rather than the
chiastic, was the most highly represented in the
corpus with 20 examples. The parallel lines of these
quatrains are so
structurally intertwined that they
cannot be analyzed in smaller units
(i.e., couplets). Toward the middle of
the continuum there are the
"integrated" quatrains in which the primary parallelism
is between the
A
and B lines, and between the C and D lines, but both couplets are
nevertheless tightly joined on the
basis of grammar, semantic, and
rhetorical parallelism. This group is also well
represented with 15
examples. Finally, there are only a few examples
where the grammatical
parallelism breaks down completely, producing
"semantic" quatrains
that are connected only by semantic and/ or
rhetorical parallelism, at
the very end of the continuum.
Secondly, and perhaps more important than the categorization
of
these structures, is the fact that Isaiah frequently
uses these structures,
along with grammar, semantics, and rhetorical devices
to enhance his
meaning. Isaiah's genius as a poet and
theologian lies in the sophisti-
cated interplay of all these
aspects. By means of such art he is able to
impress upon the mind of his hearers in a few
short parallel lines (in
our case, the four lines that make up the quatrain)
concepts and images
that would take paragraphs of ordinary prose to
express. Ultimately,
this compactness is the result of parallelism that
activates all levels of
language, melding together form and meaning.45
44 Urzo (note the long O vowel) is best
explained as a Qal passive of rrz, a hapax
with
the meaning of "pressing out" (i.e., a wound,
cf. G-K 67 m).
45 R. Jakobson,
"Grammatical Parallelism and its Russian Facet," Language 42
(1966)
399-429.
This
material is cited with gracious permission from:
Grace
Theological Seminary
www.grace.edu
Please
report any errors to Ted Hildebrandt at:
thildebrandt@gordon.edu