Grace Theological
Journal 11.1 (1991) 17-27.
[Copyright © 1991
Grace Theological Seminary; cited with permission;
digitally prepared for use at
Gordon and
A LITERARY LOOK AT NAHUM,
HABAKKUK, AND
ZEPHANIAH
RICHARD PATTERSON
Although the stool of proper biblical exegesis must rest
evenly
upon the four legs of grammar, history, theology, and literary
analysis,
too often the literary leg receives such short fashioning that
the resulting
hermeneutical product is left unbalanced. While in no way minimizing
the crucial importance of all four areas of exegesis, this
paper con-
centrates on the benefits of applying sound literary methods to the
study of three often neglected seventh century B. C. prophetical
books.
Thorough literary
analysis demonstrates that, contrary to some critical
opinions, all three books display a carefully designed structure
that
argues strongly for the unity and authorial integrity of all the
material
involved. Likewise, the application of literary techniques can prove
to
be an aid in clarifying difficult exegetical cruces.
*
* *
THE
time has passed when evangelicals need to be convinced that
the application of sound literary methods is a
basic ingredient for
proper biblical exegesis. A steady stream of papers,
articles, and books
attests to a growing consensus among
evangelicals as to the essential
importance of literary studies in gaining full
insight into God's revela-
tion.1 This paper presents
some observations drawn from the study of
Nahum,
Habakkuk, and Zephaniah in preparation for a forthcoming
volume in Moody's Wycliffe Exegetical Commentary
series (WEC).
1 Among recent books
giving attention to literary analysis may be cited: Gordon D.
Fee
and Douglas Stuart, How to Read the Bible
for All Its Worth (
Zondervan, 1982); Robert Alter, The Art of Biblical Narrative (
1981)
and The Art of Biblical Poetry (New York: Basic
Books, 1985); Leland Ryken,
Words of Delight (Grand Rapids: Baker,
1987) and Words of Life (
1987);
Tremper Longman III, Literary Approaches to Biblical Interpretation (Founda-
tions of Contemporary
Interpretation 3;
Alter
and Frank Kermode (eds.), The Literary Guide to the Bible (
Press of
18
GRACE THEOLOGICAL
JOURNAL
A LITERARY LOOK AT NAHUM AND HABAKKUK
Because I have written elsewhere concerning the
outstanding liter-
ary craftsmanship of the
book of Nahum, it remains here only to
summarize briefly the results of those studies. I
have suggested that
Nahum
delivers his prophecies of the doom of
structure (1, 2-3) in which he demonstrates that
God, the great Judge
of the universe, will both see to
tion of his own people. In
the first section, following a grand hymn
praising God both for his chastisement of the
wicked and care of the
godly, Nahum applies the principles inherent in the
hymn to the
current situation of
argument forward by painting a twofold picture of
doom (2, 3), each portion being closed by
graphically presenting taunt
songs celebrating
It was also noted that Nahum took full advantage
of the compila-
tional and compositional
techniques known to the Semitic world and
practiced by the OT writers such as: bookending/enveloping to enclose
sections ("'scattering" 2:1 and
ed[ness]"--
1:3),
and hooking/stitching, to link together the distinctive units at
various levels. In addition, Nahum uses the
technique of refrain to
mark not only major sections and sub-sections, but
even to initiate or
conclude small units, for example: "not
(again)/no (one)" (
13;
3:3, 7[?], 19), hne.hi),
"behold/lo"(
"fire" that "consumes"'(1:6, 10; 2:3, 13;
called attention to the richness of Nahum's use of
literary figures, a fact
that caused Bewer to
remark, "Nahum was a great poet. His word
pictures are superb, his rhetorical skill is
beyond praise. . . “2
Turning to the book of Habakkuk, it may be noted
at the outset
that while this seventh century B.C. writer was
caught up in the prob-
lems of his age, he was more
concerned with the basic principles by
which God regulated his world. This prophet was
particularly per-
plexed as to how a holy God
could tolerate a Judean society that was
riddled with materialism and injustice.
The book itself rehearses Habakkuk's spiritual
odyssey. It records
his deep spiritual concerns over the godlessness of
his people, a condi-
tion which he boldly brings
to God's attention (1:2-4). The account
moves on to give God's reply to Habakkuk: he is
already at work
raising up the vicious and voracious Chaldeans to chastise his people
(1:5-11).
This startling answer catches Habakkuk by such
surprise (cf.
1:5-6)
that the prophet has a still deeper perplexity. How could God
2 Ju1ius A. Bewer,
The Literature of the Old Testament (3d
ed.;
University
Press, 1962), p. 148.
PATTERSON:
NAHUM, HABAKKUK, AND ZEPHANIAH 19
use as
correction? Further, if God himself was to be their
sponsor, could their
ruthless advance ever be stopped? Still further,
how could a holy God
use such a wicked nation in the first place (
Habakkuk's new perplexities are partially
answered by God who
first calls attention to some general principles in
his dealings with the
righteous and unrighteous (2:2-4) and then applies
them to the case of
the wicked Chaldeans
(2:5,6-20). Habakkuk is thus assured that God
is on the throne, sovereignly
directing the affairs of earth's history to
their proper end, and admonished to let God be God (
The book closes with the inclusion of a great
twofold victory
psalm that recounts God's deliverance of his people
from
preservation of them through the time
of their wilderness wanderings,
and his triumphal leading of them in the conquest
of the promised land
(3:3-15).
The rehearsal of that epic material commemorating the
age of
the Exodus brings a sense of awe and humility to
Habakkuk. Such a
great God can be trusted to accomplish his holy and
righteous pur-
poses with all nations and peoples. Therefore, though
calamity must
come, Habakkuk will wait patiently and confidently,
abiding in the
Lord's
strength (
The story of Habakkuk's spiritual quest is,
however, not laid out
in narrative fashion but carefully structured in
accordance with stan-
dard literary techniques
available to the OT writers. Thus, each of
Habakkuk's
perplexities (1:2-4;
with its characteristic elements of invocation (1:2,
12), statement of the
problem (1:3-4, 13-17), and implied petition.
The second perplexity
also contains a closing affirmation of confidence in
God (2: 1). Likewise,
each of God's answers displays careful literary
attention not only in
giving the solution to the plaintiff's query (1:5-6;
2:4, 5-20) but a
detailed description of the Chaldean,
the agent of
(1:7-11)
and a catalog of the woes attendant upon the chastiser (2:6-
20)
for his failure to meet God's righteous standards
(2:4, 5). Each of
the woes is formed in accordance with the
traditional elements of
invective (2:6, 9, 12, 15, 19a), threat (2:7, 11,
13, 16, 20), and criticism
(2:8,
10, 14, 17, 18, 19b).
It may be added that each major unit of chapters
one and two is
composed so that the two perplexities of the
prophet are begun with a
question (1:2, 12) and each of the answers starts
with an imperative
(1:5;
2:2). Moreover, the two chapters are threaded together with
stitchwords such as: FPAw;mi, qyDica, dgeOB/Mydig;
Major
units in the first two chapters are formed via inclusio,
being bookended with the
idea of reproof and 2:4-20 being con-
structed with enclosing
statements that contrast the unrighteous
Chaldeans with the righteous who live by faith,
mindful of God in his
holy temple.
20
GRACE THEOLOGICAL
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As noted above, the central portion of the third
chapter preserves
a long two-part victory ode, composed in epic
style, that sings of God's
great superintending of his people during the era of
the Exodus and
conquest (3:3-15).3 Encased in the
prophet's prayer (3:1-2) and praise
(
God before whom he was to stand in silent awe (
utilized the epic psalmic
material to illustrate and validate his thesis
that God is in control of earth's unfolding history
and, as in the past,
may be expected to deal justly with his covenant
nation which he has
instructed to live by its faith(fulness--2:4)
and "be silent before him"
(
One may also make a satisfactory case for
considering the whole
third chapter as a tephillah--a
prayer. Indeed, one may see here many
of the features common to this type of poetry (cf.
Pss 17, 86, 90, 102,
142):
opening cry/statement of praise, and attestation of reverence /
trust (v. 2a), petition or problem (v. 2b), praise
and exaltation of God
(w. 3-15), statement of trust and confidence in God (vv.
16-18), and
concluding note of praise (v. 19). All of this is
developed in such a
fashion as to settle fully both the prophet's
concerns and to assure his
readers that God truly is in control of earth's
history, guiding the
destinies of nations and all men in accordance
with his most holy and
wise purposes.
Through all of this it becomes apparent that
Habakkuk's literary
artistry is not inconsiderable. Not only does the
account of his spiritual
wrestling with God often approximate Israelite wisdom
literature in
sentiment and expression,4 but his
lively interchange with God is
characteristic of the utilization of
dialogue technique in narratives.5 If
Habakkuk
does not reach the level of Nahum's literary artistry, never-
theless his employment of several
literary devices and his skillful adap-
tation of traditional epic
material shows that Habakkuk is not without
literary sensitivity.
A LITERARY LOOK AT
ZEPHANIAH
Zephaniah is concerned with matters relative to
the Day of the
Lord
as a time of judgment for sinful men and of purification for a
redeemed people. Like Nahum, the book of
Zephaniah proceeds in a
3 For justification of Hab
3:3-15 as epic, see R. D. Patterson, "The Psalm
of
Habakkuk,"
GTJ 8 (1987): 163-94.
4 See D.
5 For dialogue technique in Hebrew
narrative, see Alter, Biblical Narrative,
pp. 63-
87.
Alter particularly stresses the great importance of direct speech in narrative
texts by
pointing out that "the biblical writers. . .
are often less concerned with actions in
PATTERSON:
NAHUM, HABAKKUK, AND ZEPHANIAH 21
basic bifid format, the first half proclaiming the
judgment and its
severity (1:2-2:3) and the second disclosing the
extent and purposes of
that coming judgment (2:4-3:20).
Zephaniah accomplishes his goals by utilizing
two basic types of
prophetic material: (1) positive prophetic sayings
(2:1-3; 3:9-13, 14-
20)
and (2) threats to various groups: the nations of this
world in
general (1:2-4; 2:4-15),
13), and individuals (3:1-7). He also employs
exhortations (1:7-13;
3:8)
and instructional admonitions (2:1-3;
(
ments (1:2-3, 4-6; 2:4-15)
and detailed informative discussions (
18;
3:9-13).
Like Nahum and Habakkuk, Zephaniah makes full
use of the
compositional techniques of bookending and stitch wording. Thus the
first major section (1:2-2:3) forms an inclusio by means of the theme of
God's
dealing with the earth (1:2, 3; 2:2). Both major portions of the
book as well as their sub-units are linked via
distinctive stitchwords.
For
example, in the first section the opening pronouncement of judg-
ment (1:2-6) is hooked to
the following exhortation and warning (1:7-
13)
by the skillful employment of the tetragrammaton.
This latter
stanza is in turn linked to the following teaching
stanza (
a reference to the Day of the Lord. In the second
major section the
pronouncements against the nations and
hooked to the exhortation (3:8) by means of the stitchword "nation"
and the exhortation, in turn, to the teaching
portion (3:9-20) by the
linking device "nations/peoples." It
may be added that each strophe
within the stanzas of each major portion shows similar
stitching tech-
niques so that the overall
structure may be diagrammed in accordance
with the accompanying table.
A great deal of discussion has developed as to
Zephaniah's use of
the genre of apocalyptic. George Adam Smith
observes that at times
Zephaniah
turns to " . . . a vague terror, in which earthly
armies merge
in heavenly; battle, siege, storm, and darkness
are mingled, and de-
struction is spread upon the
whole earth. The shades of Apocalypse are
upon us."7 Similar language concerning Zephaniah has been put for-
ward by such evangelicals as Freeman and Ralph
Smith.8 Certainly the
themselves than with how individual character
responds to actions or produced them;
and direct speech is made the chief instrument for
revealing the varied and at times
nuanced relations of the personages to the
actions in which they are implicated" (p. 66).
6 This admonition is almost hymnic in nature.
7 G. A. Smith, The Book of the Twelve Prophets (rev. ed.; 2 vols.;
Garden City:
Doubleday,
1929),
8H. E. Freeman, An Introduction to the Old Testament Prophets (
1968),
pp. 232-33; R. L. Smith, Micah-Malachi
(WBC; Waco: Word, 1984), pp. 130-32.
22
GRACE THEOLOGICAL
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TABLE 1
Structure of Zephaniah
I II
Declaration of the Day of the Details
Concerning the Day of the
Lord's Judgment (1:2-2:3) Lord's Judgment (2:4-3:20)
Subject
Matter Stitching Stanza Subject Matter Stitching
Pronouncements
-A - Pronouncements
On
the Earth On the Nations
(1:2-3) (2:4-15)
"cut off" "woe"
On Judah / Jerus. On
(1:4-6) (3:1-7)
hvhy "nations"
Exhortation
-B
- Exhortation
(1:7-13)
(3:8)
(near
is) nations / peoples
Teachings
The
Day -C - Teachings
Information
of Information
(
"scattered /
afraid"
Instruction Instruction
(2:1-3)
Lord (
presence of apocalyptic themes and language9
is noticeable in Zeph-
aniah's description of the Day
of the Lord as being one of darkness and
gloominess, accompanied by remarkable earthly and
celestial phe-
nomena (
brings destruction, devastation, and death (
of great warfare (
in Zephaniah's stress on the element of divine
intervention in a climactic
judgment that will effect the restoration and
everlasting felicity of
God's
people (3:8-20).11
9 For important discussions of
apocalyptic, see John J. Collins, The
Apocalyptic
Imagination (New York: Crossroad,
1984); Paul D. Hanson, Old Testament
Apocalyptic
(Nashville:
Abingdon, 1987) and The Dawn of Apocalyptic (
1975);
Leon Morris, Apocalyptic (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1972); and Ronald Young-
blood, "A Holistic Typology of Prophecy and
Apocalyptic," in
Restoration (ed. Avraham Gileadi;
10 See also R. D. Patterson, "Joel,"in The
Expositor's Bible Commentary (ed. Frank
Gaebelein; 12 vols.;
11 The essential importance of this feature
is emphasized by D. S. Russell, The
Method and Message of
Jewish Apocalyptic
(Philadelphia: Westminster, 1964), p. 91.
PATTERSON:
NAHUM, HABAKKUK, AND ZEPHANIAH 23
However, it must be confessed that such themes
as divine interven-
tion followed by a golden
age of peace and prosperity in connection
with the judgment of the Day of the Lord are present
elsewhere in the
OT
prophets (e.g., Isa 24-27; Ezek 38-48; Joel 2:1-32
[Heb. 2:1-3:5];
3:9-21
[Heb. 4:9-21]; Zech 14:1-21). This makes the isolation of a
special apocalyptic genre in distinction from
normal eschatological
prophecy somewhat difficult and calls into
question any proposal of
apocalyptic material per se in Zephaniah.12
Indeed, while many of
Zephaniah's
themes will permeate the pages of the later apocalyptists,
Zephaniah's
presentation is considerably removed from the emotional
fervor that will mark those writers. Accordingly, it
may be safest to
conclude that while Zephaniah's language
anticipates apocalyptic, it
does not contain an apocalypse; it is "emergent
apocalyptic."13
One further feature of Zephaniah's literary
style is worthy of
particular notice. Zephaniah's prophecy is
everywhere punctuated by
repetition and wordplay. These are found in
extended lines of com-
pound parallel structure in such frequency that
Zephaniah's presenta-
tionis somewhat monotonously
predictable. However, this observation
needs to be balanced with the realization that this
feature allows for a
straightforwardness and forcefulness that
are especially effective in
capturing his readers' attention. Accordingly, J.
M. P. Smith can
rightly remark,
He had an imperative
message to deliver and proceeded in the most
direct and forceful way to
discharge his responsibility. What he lacked in
grace and charm, he in some
measure atoned for by the vigour and
clarity of his speech. He realised the approaching terror so keenly that he
was able to present it
vividly and convincingly to his hearers. No prophet
has made the picture of the
day of Yahweh more real.14
A
LITERARY LOOK AT NAHUM, HABAKKUK, AND ZEPHANIAH
Despite the necessary brevity of the paper,
enough has been said
to demonstrate that all three of these prophets
display the techniques
of composition and style that brand their books as
good literary
productions. Each of these authors makes use of such
things as book-
ending and stitchwording.
Each prophetical book has a clearly defined
and carefully reasoned literary structure. In the
case of Habakkuk, the
12 See further Hanson, Dawn of Apocalyptic, p. 12; Youngblood, "Prophecy and
Apocalyptic,"
pp. 215-16.
13 P. C. Craigie
(The Old Testament [Nashville: Abingdon, 1986], p: 200) speaks of
Zephaniah as "one of the pioneers of
apocalyptic thought."
14 J. M. P. Smith, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Zephaniah and Nahum
(ICC;
Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1911), p. 176.
24
GRACE THEOLOGICAL
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prophecies are developed around the prophet's
perplexities (1:2-4;
1:12-2:1)
together with God's answers (1:5-11; 2:2-20) and the great
prayer chapter (ch. 3) whose
central epic contains a twofold psalm
commemorating God's great victory
during the Exodus event (vv. 3-
15).
A clear bifid structure can be traced in Nahum and Zephaniah,
Nahum's
two halves being built around the features of theme (1:2; 2:2),
development (1:3-10; 2:3-10; 3:1-7), and application
(
19), and Zephaniah's two portions being formed
with pronouncements
of judgment (1:2-6; 2:4-3:7), exhortations
(1:7-13; 3:8), and teachings
(
Careful attention to structural matters provides
at least two dis-
tinct dividends. (1) The
attention to organization in all three books
argues strongly for authorial integrity. The
observable unity in subject
matter, theme and development, vocabulary, and
perspective that perme-
ates all three chapters of
Habakkuk is best explained as the unified
product of its author. Likewise, the discernible
bifid structure of Nahum
and Zephaniah, section answering to section, again
argues for authorial
intention.15
(2) Structural data can provide a valuable aid
to exegesis. Thus, in
Nahum
attention to the opening hymn reveals the presence of an
interesting (though incomplete) acrostic poem that
invites the reader's
more critical insight, while consciousness of a
hinge verse (3:4) in the
midst of a chiastic pericope
(3:1-7) adds freshness and vigor to the flow
of thought in a woe oracle. A similar hinging
device in 2:4 presents
Nahum's
readers with a vivid picture of the prophesied military advance
against
(2:4), the all-out attack (2:5-6), and the
battle's aftermath (2:7-10).
Similarly,
Habakkuk's use of the root HkayA in
bookending device argues strongly
for the idea that the emphasis of 2:1
is upon the prophet's expectation of divine
reproof and correction (so
NASB,
Armerding) as opposed to the thought that Habakkuk
was
strongly voicing his complaint (NIV, Keil). So construed Habakkuk is
saying that much as the Chaldeans
had been sent to reprove/correct
the Judeans, he expects and deserves God's
correction concerning his
doubts and understanding of the full scope of God's
plans for the
future.
In like fashion, viewing Zeph
3:8 as a hinge verse (established on
the basis of the observed stitching with the
surrounding verses, FPAw;mi
["judgment"] vv. 5, 8 and yKi ["because"]
vv. 8, 9) makes the flow of
15 Similarly, D. W. Gooding ("The
Literary Structure of the Book of Daniel,"
Tyndale Bulletin 32 [1981]: 68) remarks concerning the bifid
structure of Daniel, " . . . we
must take seriously the book's internal proportions,
as having been deliberately planned
by the author."
PATTERSON:
NAHUM, HABAKKUK, AND ZEPHANIAH 25
thought from that of judgment (3:1-7) to future
hope (3:9-13, 14-20--
Zephaniah's
twin theological themes) to be both smoother and strik-
ingly contrastive.16
It also reinforces the suggestion that contrary to
critics who routinely dismiss prophetic messages
of hope as later
insertions into otherwise prevalent prophetic
pronouncements of judg-
ment, not only do hope and
judgment commonly occur together, but
judgment is integral to hope. From the prophet's
point of view, proper
corrective to current conditions by divine judgment
produces the re-
sponsenecessary to circumstances of
hope. Indeed, judgment may thus
be viewed as a veiled hope. Such is the case in
3:8. The correction of
One further literary comparison between these
three prophets
revolves around their use of figurative language.
Each of the prophets
makes rather good use of the standard literary
figures utilized by the
OT
authors, as illustrated in Table 2. Even a casual glance at this list is
sufficient to convince the fair-minded critic that
our authors were
writers of considerable literary ability. Since
I have demonstrated
Nahum's
powerful use of tropic language elsewhere, it will, perhaps, be
enough to add an example from each of the other two
prophets.
Turning first to Habakkuk, one may note this
prophet's excep-
tional use of literary tools in
his fourth denunciation of the Chaldeans
(
is first likened to a man who in feigned
friendship gives his neighbor
strong drink only to get him drunk and denude him.
Moving from
invective to threat, Habakkuk turns the metaphor
into allegory, the
false friend now himself being forced to partake of
his own drink and
subsequently suffering the shame and
disgrace of exposure. Employing
the motif of the cup, Habakkuk points out that the Chaldean will pour
out a cup of wrath but in turn will drink it
himself. He will now know
the shame he has brought on others. He is given a
sarcastic command,
"Go
on! Drink! . . . and expose yourself!" The last imperative is ex-
tremely graphic. It means
literally show yourself as uncircumcised.
Naked
and without covenantal grounds for leniency, the Chaldean
faced certain doom. One could hardly overestimate the
cumulative
force of the concatenation of the powerful literary
figures here.
Although Zephaniah uses literary figures
throughout his prophecy,
the prophet is at his best in blending such tropes
with his employment
16 Zephaniah's employment of the remnant
motif, which he threads throughout the
fabric of his presentation (e.g., 2:3, 7, 9, 12), is
underscored by Herbert Marks, "The
Twelve
Prophets,"in The Literary Guide to the Bible, p. 216. For the necessary wedding
of the themes of judgment and hope, see
Theology (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1979), pp. 219-37.
26
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TABLE 2
Special Literary Features. Nahum Habakkuk Zephaniah
Acrostic
X
Allegory
X X
Alliteration/Assonance
X X
X
Authropopoeia X
Chiasmus
X X X
Enallage X
X
Heniadys X
X
Hyperbole
X
Irony
X X
Lament
X X
Merismus X
Metonomy X
X
Metaphor/Simile
X X X
Paronomasia
X
X
Personification
X
X
Picturesque
Brevity X
Repetition/Refrain
X X
Rhetorical
Question X X
Satire
X X
Special
Parallelism X X X
Synechdoche X
X X
Woe
X X X
*
Full details can be found in the author's forthcoming commentary on Nahum,
Habakkuk and Zephaniah (Moody).
of literary allusions. Thus, in 1:2-3 he calls
upon hyperbole and
wordplay to draw attention to God's coming
judgment while drawing
upon allusions to both the flood and the creation.
In depicting the
destruction of the Philistine cities (2:4-7),
Zephaniah combines word-
play with the metaphor of a deserted woman, thus
dramatically por-
traying their sure demise.
Zephaniah's boldest stroke of all comes in
3:9f.
Here Zephaniah alludes to earlier Canaanite literary tradition,
that tells of a time when Baal was to be handed over
to Yamm both as
servant and tribute,
Thy slave is Baal, 0 Yamm,
Thy slave is Baal for[eve]r,
Dagon's Son is thy
captive;
He shall be brought as thy
tribute.17
17 ANET,
p. 130. That the literary allusion is to this text is rendered certain by
Zephaniah's
choice of vocabulary drawn from the Ugaritic epic: db,f, (‘ebed)
"servant/
slave," lbayA (yabal)
"bring," and hHAn;mi (minha)
"tribute/offering." For the Ugaritic text
itself, see UT#137:36-38.
PATTERSON:
NAHUM, HABAKKUK, AND ZEPHANIAH 27
The
recognition of the literary setting of Zephaniah's words serves as a
clue to their translation and understanding. Thus,
even as Baal was to
be Yamm's servant and
was sent as tribute to him, so converted
Gentiles
who "call upon the name of the Lord" and "serve him shoulder
to shoulder" are "my worshipers" who
will "bring my scattered ones"
(the Jews) as "my tribute."
That these prophets, then, were skilled authors
who composed
their prophecies with careful design and utilized
polished literary tech-
niques to achieve their
purposes is undeniable.18 This fact alone argues
strongly for the unity of the books that bear
their names. Regardless of
that question, however, it is certain that the key
to yet more precise
understanding in the exegesis of
these three prophets lies along the
lines of literary analysis.
18 The matter of the relative degree of
literary craftsmanship displayed in each
prophecy, left unanswered in this paper, will be
addressed in a subsequent study.
This
material is cited with gracious permission from:
Grace
Theological Seminary
www.grace.edu
Please
report any errors to Ted Hildebrandt at:
thildebrandt@gordon.edu