Restoration Quarterly 22 (1979) 242-46

Restoration Quarterly 22 (1979) 242-46.

digitally prepared for use at Gordon College]

Maidenhood and Virginity

in Ancient Israel

CLYDE M. MILLER

David Lipscomb College

Our interest in focusing on this topic stems primarily from the

famous "Immanuel Passage" in Isaiah 7:14. Much controversy, some

of it highly prejudicial, has arisen over the translation “young

woman" in the RSV and NEB. It is the purpose of this article to

examine the major terms used in the Hebrew Bible concerning maiden-

hood and virginity in ancient Israel so that objective and unbiased

conclusions may be reached by the serious student of the scriptures.

There are three Hebrew words which refer to a young woman in

ancient Israel. One of these is the word na'arah, variantly spelled

na'ara. This word is used over sixty times in the feminine gender

(the masculine form being used over ninety times). In the King James

Version it is translated "maid" or "maids" seven times,¹ "maiden"

or "maidens" fifteen times, ² "damsel" or "damsels" thirty-four

times,³ "young maidens" once,⁴ and "young woman" once.⁵ This

word carries no inherent connotation of virginity, although it may

refer to one who is a virgin. For instance, Rebekah is referred to as

a na'ara ("damsel," KJV; "maiden," RSV), a bethulah ("virgin"),

and an 'almah ("virgin," KJV; "young woman," RSV).⁶ Furthermore,

the word is used in apposition with bethulah or bethuloth four times

¹ 2 Kings 5:2, 4; Esther 2:7, 9, 12; 4:4; Amos 2:7.

² Exodus 2:5; Ruth 2:8, 22, 23; 3:2, Esther 2:4, 8, 9 (twice) 13; 4:16; Job 1:5; Proverbs

9:3; 27:27; 31:15.

³Genesis 24:14, 16, 28, 55, 57, 61; 34:3 (twice), 12; Deuteronomy 22:15 (twice), 16, 19,

20, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26 (twice), 27, 28, 29; Judges 19:3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9; Ruth 2:5, 6; 1 Samuel

25:42; 1 Kings 1:3,4.

⁴ I Samuel 9:11.

⁵Ruth 4:12.

⁶ Genesis 24:16, 43.

Maidenhood and Virginity in Ancient Israel 243

("young virgin" or "young virgins").⁷ The verbal root of the Hebrew

word na'arah is not used in the Old Testament and its etymology is

unknown. It is evident, however, from the usage of the noun that the

word is generic rather than specific in connotation. The question of

virginity is not under consideration.

The second key word is bethulah, translated in the KJV "maid"

or "maids" seven times,⁸ "maiden" or “maidens" five times,⁹ and

"virgin" or "virgins" thirty-eight times.¹⁰ The plural, bethulim (a

feminine plural with a masculine termination), is translated "maid"

twice¹¹ and "virginity" eight times.¹² The RSV renders bethulah

"maiden" or "maidens" twelve times,¹³ and in the remaining passages,

"virgin" or "virgins" or "virginity." It is obvious, therefore, that

the connotation of virginity is not inherent in this word, although it

can be demonstrated that the word does sometimes specifically connote

a virgin.

Several facts suggest that the word is frequently used in the same

generic sense as the word na'arah. In the first place, the parallelistic

structure of several passages in which "young man" or "young men"

is made synonymous with bethulah or bethuloth makes it clear that

nothing more than "young woman" or "young women" is connoted.¹⁴

The RSV frequently translates "maiden" or "maidens." It should be

noted that the KJV translates several of these passages in similar

fashion. Bethuloth may also be used in synonymous construction with

"women"¹⁵ and in contrast to "elders."¹⁶ Bethulah is also made

parallel to "bride,"¹⁷ although "bride" in this instance could refer to

⁷ Judges 21:12; 1 Kings 1:2; Esther 2:2, 3.

⁸ Exodus 22:16 (15 Hebrew); Job 31:1; Jeremiah 2:32; 51:22; Lamentations 5:11;

Ezekiel 9:6; Zechariah 9:17.

⁹ Judges 19:24; 2 Chronicles 36:17; Psalms 78:63; 148:12; Ezekiel 44:22.

¹⁰ Genesis 24:16; Exodus 22:17 (16 Hebrew); Leviticus 21:3, 14; Deuteronomy 22:19,

23, 28; 32:25; Judges 21:12; 2 Samuel 13:2, 18; 1 Kings 1:2; 2 Kings 19:21; Esther 2:2, 3,

17,19; Psalm 45:14; Isaiah 23:4, 12; 37:22; 47:1; 62:5; Jeremiah 14:17; 18:13; 31:4, 13,

21; 46:11; Lamentations 1:4, 15, 18; 2:10, 13, 21; Joel 1:8; Amos 5:2; 8:13.

¹¹ Deuteronomy 22:14, 17.

¹² Leviticus 21:13; Deuteronomy 22:15, 17, 20; Judges 11:37, 38; Ezekiel 23:3, 8.

¹³Jeremiah 2:32; 31:13; 51:22; 1 Kings 1:2; Ezekiel 9:6; Psalms 78:63; 148:12;

Lamentations 1:4, 18; 2:10, 21; Zechariah 9:17.

¹⁴ Deuteronomy 32:25; 2 Chronicles 36:17; Jeremiah 31:13; 51:22; Ezekiel 9:6; Psalms

78:63; 148:12; Lamentations 1:18; 2:21; Isaiah 23:4; Amos 8:13; Zechariah 9:17.

¹⁵ Lamentations 5:11.

¹⁶ Lamentations 2:10.

¹⁷ Jeremiah 2:32.

244 Restoration Quarterly

the virgin who has just come to the marriage altar. In the second

place, there are references in which the additional phrase "whom no

man had known,” or something similar, is added to further define

the word bethulah.¹⁸ If the word always connoted a virgin, it would

not be necessary to add that additional phrase.

However, there are other passages in which bethulah definitely

means a virgin. Such is the case in those passages in which the priest

is forbidden to marry a widow, divorcee, or one defiled, but is charged

to marry only a virgin,¹⁹ although KJV strangely translates "maidens"

in Ezekiel. The same is true in passages referring to "the tokens of

virginity,²⁰ as well as those in which a young woman bewails her

virginity,²¹ although KJV inconsistently translates these passages. In

those passages stating laws concerning a betrothed woman,²² it would

seem likely that bethulah means a virgin. In the remaining passages

the question of virginity is uncertain.

In those passages in which nations are called virgins²³ it appears that

bethulah reverts to a possible Arabic or Assyrian root which means

"sever, separate."²⁴ The nation under consideration is designated by

God for some particular purpose, usually for destruction. Though the

nation referred to has not yet been ravished by the enemy, such is soon

to take place. In view of the fact that these nations may also be

designated as harlotrous,²⁵it is obvious that bethulah as a personification

of the nations does not indicate moral or spiritual purity. Therefore,

the idea of virginity from a sexual standpoint is not back of the word

used in such connections.

The third Hebrew word to be considered is ‘almah which is the word

used in Isaiah 7:14. That this word is also a generic term referring to a

young woman can be ascertained by examining the way it is translated.

¹⁸ Genesis 24:16; Judges 21:12.

¹⁹ Leviticus 21:13, 14; Ezekiel 44:22.

²⁰ Deuteronomy 22:14, 15, l7 (twice), 20.

²¹ Judges 11:37, 38; Joel 1:8.

²² Exodus 22:16 (15 Hebrew); Deuteronomy 22:23,28.

²³ 2 Kings 19:21=Isaiah 37:22; Isaiah 23:12; 47:1; Jeremiah 14:17; 18:13; 31:4, 21; 46:11; Amos 5:2; Lamentations I: 15; 2: 13.

²⁴ Francis Brown, S.R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs (eds.,) Hebrew and English Lexi-

con of the Old Testament (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1907), p. 143.

²⁵ Isaiah 1:21; Jeremiah 2:20; Hosea 2:5; Nahum 3:4; Revelation 17:5.

Maidenhood and Virginity in Ancient Israel 245

Since the word is only used seven times in the Old Testament, it is easy

to portray the usage in graphic form in five standard translations.

Reference KJV ASV NASB RSV NEB

Genesis 24:43 virgin maiden maiden young young

woman woman

Exodus 2:8 maid maiden girl girl girl

Psalm 68:26 (25) damsels damsels maidens maidens girls

Proverbs 30:19 maid maiden maid maiden girl

Song of Solomon

1:3 virgins virgins maidens maidens maidens

(maidens) (virgins)

Song of Solomon

6:8 virgins virgins maidens maidens young

(maidens) (virgins) women

Isaiah 7:14 virgin virgin virgin young young

(maiden) (maiden) woman woman

(virgin)

Note that of the thirty-five possibilities (7 passages x 5 translations)

"virgin" or "virgins" is used only eight times. Note also that no trans-

lation consistently translates the word "virgin" or "virgins" in all seven

occurrences. With four of the seven passages, none of the standard

translations renders the word "virgin" or "virgins." The words in

parentheses in the chart indicate alternative translations given in foot-

notes or marginal notes. Our translators recognize that the word 'almah

is a generic term which does not inherently designate a virgin. If one

standard translation is to be rejected because it translates 'almah "young

woman," or "maiden," then all the others will have to be rejected on

the same grounds.

The NIV, which was published after this article was first submitted

for publication, translates the word 'almah in the above passages:

"maiden," "girl," "maidens," "maiden," "maidens," "virgins,"

and "virgin." Therefore, this newest of the standard translations

concurs in the judgment of former translators that the word 'almah

does not inherently refer to a virgin.

John T. Willis in an excellent article entitled "The Meaning of Isaiah

7:14 and Its Application in Matthew 1:23"²⁶ has shown that the

²⁶Restoration Quarterly, Vol: 21, No.1, 1978, pp. 1-18.

246 Restoration Quarterly

Immanuel in the prophecy was first of all a contemporary of Isaiah and

Ahaz and that Matthew applies the passage to Christ in a typical sense.

A careful study of that article and the literature referred to in the foot-

notes is highly recommended. For a further consideration of the varied

viewpoints in regard to Isaiah 7:14, see Hobart E. Freeman²⁷ and

J. Gresham Machen.²⁸ Machen is excellent in dealing with the authenticity

of the birth narratives in Matthew and Luke and in dispelling the notion

that these borrowed from a supposed Jewish or pagan source about a

virgin birth. Both Machen and Freeman hold to the viewpoint that there

was no contemporary fulfilment of the prophecy in Isaiah's day. This

is not the viewpoint of this writer, who holds rather to the typical and

antitypical fulfilments as set forth in Willis' article referred to above.

It should be clear from this study that none of the three Hebrew

words always refers to a virgin. With the words na’arah and 'almah

there is never any certainty which inheres in the words. With regard to

bethulah, three things have been ascertained: In some passages the

word does not inherently designate a virgin, while in other passages it

does definitely refer to a virgin. In the majority of passages, however,

the word is used in a generic sense. Whether anyone of these words

designates a virgin in a given passage will have to be determined from

the context in each case.

²⁷ An Introduction to the Old Testament Prophets (Chicago: Moody Press, 1968),

pp. 203-209.

²⁸ The Virgin Birth of Christ (New York: Harper and Row, 1930).

This material is cited with gracious permission from:

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Please report any errors to Ted Hildebrandt at: thildebrandt@gordon.edu