Criswell Theological Review 6.2 (1993) 207-222
[Copyright © 1993 by
digitally prepared for use at
Gordon and
ISAIAH'S CALL AND ITS CONTEXT
IN ISAIAH 1-6
PAUL R. HOUSE
Commentators
have offered a variety of opinions on Isaiah's call
within its
context in Isaiah 1-6. Part of this diversity stems from the
call's
placement. Unlike his fellow prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel,
whose call
experiences open their books, Isaiah's initial command to
preach
seems to come in chapter 6. This difference has led to specula-
tion on the authorship, date, compilation,
setting, and purpose of the
whole
section. Though these issues cannot be solved beyond question,
it is
necessary to examine them to analyze Isaiah's call effectively.
Therefore,
this article will explore Isaiah's call in its context by not-
ing the section's genre, historical setting,
structure, biblical context,
placement,
contents, and theology. This discussion will conclude that
Isaiah 6
functions as a linking passage between the book's presenta-
tion of the difficulty of the prophet's
message in chapters 1-5 and the
difficulty of
the prophet's ministry in chapters 7-12. It will thereby
demonstrate the
strenuous nature of Isaiah's life and work.
Isaiah 1-6 and Prophetic Literature
Isaiah begins the latter prophets segment of the Hebrew canon.
As the
opening prophecy, it sets the tone for the rest of the books.
Themes,
images, and personae that appear here emerge again and
again in
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Twelve. The importance
of this
observation lies in its ability to help explain the logic of the
placement of
Isaiah 6.
The prophetic genre uses both narrative and poetry to proclaim
its message.1
Thus, what separates prophecy from the law and the
1 Of
course, scholars are currently debating the nature of Hebrew poetry and its
existence.
This article uses the terms in their traditional sense. However one defines
Hebrew
poetry, it is evident that Isaiah 1-5 and Isaiah 36-39 utilize different
syntactical
208 CRISWELL THEOLOGICAL REVIEW
writings is
its content, not its mode of composition. B. D. Napier ar-
gues that five basic themes distinguish
prophetic literature: (1) Word
and
symbol, (2) election and covenant, (3) rebellion and judgment, (4)
compassion and
redemption, and (5) consummation.2
R. Clements basically agrees with Napier. He thinks canonical
(written) prophecy stresses the inspiration of the prophet's
words and
the
destruction and restoration of
phasis was attached" to restoration, and
that
assumes a
variety of forms in the prophets.3 Napier and Clements offer
a
balanced view of prophetic themes, in contrast to commentators who
tend to
over-emphasize the prophets' concern with sin and doom.4
Isaiah 1-6
constantly claims to present God's own words. Twice
the
passage says that Isaiah received these messages as "visions" from
the Lord
(1:1; 2:1). God is quoted repeatedly (1:2-3, 24-26; 5:1-2; etc.).
Chapter 6
presents an episode where Isaiah speaks with God face to
face.
Claims for direct inspiration permeate these chapters and the
whole
prophecy as well.
Yahweh and the prophet denounce sin in great detail in chapters
1-6. These denunciations set the stage for later calls to
repentance
and
offers of consolation. Often, the Lord announces the nation's
wickedness
(e.g., 1:2-3), and then Isaiah explains the implications
of
Yahweh's comments for
prophet
introduces God's condemnations (e.g.,
edness becomes so evident by 6:5 that Isaiah
admits, "I am a man of
unclean
lips, and I live among a people of unclean lips."
Because of this sin, God will punish
not
recognize their master (1:2-3), so Yahweh will purge the rebel-
styles and
that Isaiah 6 combines both styles. Cf. Robert Lowth,
Lectures on the Sacred
Poetry of
the Hebrews (original
1753; reprinted
The Idea of
Biblical Poetry (New
Haven: Yale, 1981); Robert Alter, The Art of
Biblical
Poetry (New York: Basic Books, 1985); and Mona
West, "Looking for the Poem: Reflec-
tions on the Current and Future Status of
Biblical Hebrew Poetry Analysis," Beyond
Form
Criticism: Essays in Old Testament Literary Criticism (ed. Paul R. House;
2 B.
D. Napier, Song of the Vineyard: A Guide Through
the Old Testament (Phila-
delphia: Fortress, 1982) 250.
3
Ronald Clements, "Pattems in the Prophetic
Canon," Canon and Authority: Es-
says in
Old Testament Religion and Theology (ed. G, W. Coats and B, Long; Philadel-
phia: Fortress, 1977) 45.
4 Many
early critical scholars tend to argue that the prophets preached judgment,
and that
any mention of hope must be an addition to the text. Cf. Ivan Engnell's survey
and
refutation of this tendency in The Call
of Isaiah: An Exegetical and Comparative
Study (Uppsala/Leipzig: A-B. Lundequistska/Otto
Harrassowitz, 1949) 20-23.
5 Note
John D. W
in Isaiah
1-33 (WBC 24; Waco, TX: Word, 1985) 1-77.
Paul House:
ISAIAH'S CALLAND ITS CONTEXT IN ISAIAH 1-6 209
lious nation of all His foes (
day of
Yahweh, a time of reckoning (
among
ile will be the most obvious sign that the
"day" has come (
remnant of
righteous persons will remain in the land after the judg-
ment ceases (6:9-13).
God punishes to effect redemption. After the devastation, all na-
tions will worship Yahweh together in
protection in
harshest
punishment (
ment, they do not neglect restoration
altogether. Renewal remains
Yahweh's ultimate purpose.
Clearly, Isaiah 1-6 introduces the basic themes of the prophetic
genre.
Isaiah will participate in the main traditions of prophetic
preaching.
Since condemnation and calls for repentance are so prom-
inent, his audience may not appreciate his
message. His ministry may
not
prove easy or popular.
Historical Setting of Isaiah 1-6
Some scholars attempt to date chapters 1-5 fairly specifically.
For
instance,
Hayes and
it
describes the Syro-Ephraimite crisis. At this time
invade
16:7-9). Since chapter 6 is dated about seven years earlier, Hayes
and
740, or, in
other words, a few years before Uzziah's death.6 In their
scheme,
Isaiah 1-6 comes from Isaiah's early ministry, when
wickedness has
yet to place them in political danger. Chapters 7-12,
then, are
sermons delivered during and after the 733 crisis that inau-
gurates a new, politically conscious phase of
Isaiah's ministry.7
Other commentators are more cautious. For instance, J. Oswalt
thinks
chapters 1-5 are broad introductory messages that have no
"more direct relationship with chaps. 7-12 than they do with
any
other
segment of the book."8 Thus, they can only be dated sometime
during
Isaiah's career. R. Clements says that chapter 1 is an introduc-
tory collection of texts from various periods
of Isaiah's ministry. Most
6 John
H. Hayes and Stuart Irvine, Isaiah the Eighth-Century Prophet: His Times
and His
Preaching (Nashville:
Abingdon, 1987) 52-53.
7 Ibid. Note, too, their discussion of chaps. 7-12 (113-220).
8 John
Oswalt, The Book
of Isaiah, chapters 1-39 (NICOT;
mans,
1986) 173.
210 CRISWELL THEOLOGICAL REVIEW
of
chapters 2-6 originates during 733-725, since these passages are
similar in
content to Isaiah 7-9, though messages of hope like 2:1-5,
4:2-6, and
6:12-13 are post-exilic additions.9 E. J. Young essentially
agrees with
Oswalt's assessment of the section, and though they
date
more
oracles after 587 than Clements, Kaiser and Gray also think
much of
chapters 1-6 comes from eighth-century Isaiah.10 Other au-
thors could be cited, but the point has been
made. These writers con-
clude that Isaiah 1-5 arises from a variety of
eighth-century settings
and
introduces the book in some way. All agree that Isaiah 6 occurs
by 740.
The prophecy itself offers no exact life setting for chapters 1-5.
Two
inscriptions appear, but they merely state that Isaiah delivers
these
messages sometime "during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz,
and
Hezekiah" (1:1) and that they consist of comments "concerning
Uzziah's
death" (6:1), but this reference reveals little. It sets a date for
the call
experience without divulging how Uzziah's death
affects
Isaiah. The
book's internal evidence can be interpreted in a number
of
ways, as the survey of scholarly opinions noted above indicates.
Therefore,
chapters 1-5 can only be dated sometime during the
reigns of
the kings listed in 1:1, or between 783-687.11 Again, chapter
6 takes
place near 740. Isaiah's ministry spans from at least 740, and
concludes no
sooner than 701, when Sennacherib invades
Isaiah 36-37).
Because chapter 6 mentions Uzziah's
death, it is possible to
suggest a
general historical situation for Isaiah 1-6. Uzziah
rules ef-
fectively from ca. 783-742.12 He helps
military
success at a time when Jeroboam II (ca. 786-746) enjoys an
even
greater reign in Samaria.13 Despite these prosperous times, Yah-
weh is not pleased with the people. Hosea and
Amos, who minister
during the
earlier decades of Uzziah and Jeroboam's era, charge
the
people and
their rulers with a variety of individual and societal sins.
By the time Uzziah dies, the people are ripe for judgment.
9
Ronald Clements, Isaiah 1-39 (NCB; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1980) 2-8.
10 Cf.
E. J. Young, The Book of Isaiah: Vol. 1,
chapters 1-18 (
mans,
1965) 233; Otto Kaiser, Isaiah 1-12 (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1972)
1-7; 23, 53,
73; G. B.
Gray, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary
on the Book of Isaiah 1-27 (ICC;
thors' opinion on specific texts at this point
in the article. What matters is their agree-
ment about the general date and purpose of
chaps. 1-6.
11 John
Bright, A History of
308.
12 Ibid., 254-55.
13 Ibid.
Paul House:
ISAIAH'S CALL AND ITS CONTEXT IN ISAIAH 1-6 211
will soon
threaten the region and will eventually destroy
a new
prophet, Isaiah should have even less hope for
ate
future than his predecessors.
Structure of Isaiah 1-6
A passage's structure unites its various themes, images, ideas,
characters,
plots, points of view, and time sequences. It is the glue
that
holds artistic pieces together. E. V. Roberts states:
Structure is a matter of the relationship among parts that are
usually de-
scribed in terms of cause and effect, position in
time, association, symme-
try, and balance and proportion. . . . Literary artists universally
aim at a
unified impression in their works, and because
literature is a time art. . . ,
the study of structure attempts to demonstrate that the idea and the
re-
sulting arrangements of parts produces a total
impression.14
Because of
its ambiguous historical background, this section's struc-
ture is particularly important to grasp. If
the chapters are introductory
in
nature, then their progression of thought becomes extremely vital.
Certain "seams" exist in these chapters. First, both
chapters 1 and
2 have
inscriptions which separate them into two distinct segments.
Second,
chapters 2-4 form a unit, since 2:1-4 describes
ous future, 2:5-4:1 warns of coming judgment,
and 4:2-6 returns to the
restoration
theme. Third, 5:1- 7 is a song about
against God.
Fourth, 5:8-30 consists of woes against
a
dated, narrative account. Sixth, 7:1 presents a totally different setting
from
chapter 6. Except for 5:1- 7 and 5:8-30, each seam also marks a
thematic
transition.
Linguistic parallels help link these sections. L. Liebreich notes
that variations
on fmw (sm') ("hear") and wdq (qds) ("holy") occur
throughout the
chapters.
and
1:10.15 The Torah is the object of the "hearing" in
blames
rejection of the Torah for
ther, 1:4 and
Yahweh as
the thrice-holy one.17
14 Edgar V. Roberts, Writing Themes About Literature (3d ed.;
NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1973) 119.
15
(1954) 37.
16 Ibid., 38.
17 Ibid., 39.
212 CRISWELL THEOLOGICAL REVIEW
Thematic
progression is evident as well. Chapter 1 utilizes sev-
eral common prophetic rhetorical devices, each
intended to shame the
people into
repentance.18 Yahweh exposes
comparing them
unfavorably to an ox and an ass (1:2-3). Next, God
asks the
people why they are determined to perish (1:4-9). The land
has been
devastated, so why do they remain stubborn? Why not
"wash" themselves of this sin (
bring
blessings (
(
Chapter 2 uses a new inscription to break from chapter 1, but it
continues the
sin, punishment, and restoration sequence. P. R. Ackroyd
places
2:1-5 with chapter 1, thus creating two segments that begin
with
condemnation and conclude with hope (1:2-2:5 and 2:6-4:6).19
Though this
ordering is possible, it fails to accept the separate in-
scriptions as clear divisions and does not recognize
another viable
structural
option. If 1:1-31, 2:1-4:6, and 5:1-30 are distinct units, then
1:1-31 and
5:1-30 begin and end with oracles of doom. Conversely,
2:1-4:6
begins and ends with words of hope. This rhetorical strategy
allows
either as a
message of doom or hope. Unfortunately, they reject threats
and
promises equally. No wonder Isaiah despairs over the nation's un-
cleanness in
6:5.
God
gives
sion rejected, Yahweh declares
people
(2:6-11). God will therefore set a "day of reckoning" (
move
idols (
zens (
bed in
2:1-4 by suffering the devastation promised in
Chapter 5
begins with a parable (5:1-7), moves to a series of woes
(5:8-23),
and ends with predictions of exile (
"song" (5:1), denounces the way
pression and murder (5:7). Since
"Woe"
awaits all who rape the land (5:8), live for wine
(5:9), pervert God's
word (
4:2-6;
5:1-2), so a purging disaster has become inevitable (
The first five chapters have done more than introduce the book's
contents20 or simply stress the message over the messenger.21
After
18
17 (1964) 468.
19 P. R Ackroyd,
"Isaiah 1-12: Presentation of a Prophet," VT Sup 29 (1978) 43.
20 Cf. Oswalt, Isaiah
1-39, 173.
21 Cf. Young, Isaiah 1-18, 234 and
Geoffrey W. Grogan (EBC 6; ed. F: Gaebelein;
Paul House:
ISAIAH'S CALL AND ITS CONTEXT IN ISAIAH 1-6 213
all,
some major Isaianic themes, such as the coming
Messiah and the
fall of
the nations, receive very little treatment, and 1:1 and 2:1 make
Isaiah quite visible to readers. Rather, chapters 1-5 reveal the callous-
ness of
the people and, thus, the difficulty of the prophet's ministry.
Regardless
of his rhetorical skill, he will be rejected. Neither threat
nor
promise will change the people. Yahweh will have no choice ex-
cept to destroy his vineyard. With this desperate
situation in place,
Isaiah 6
presents the prophet's call. The reader now knows the obsta-
cles Isaiah faces.
Isaiah 6 has its own structure, since it narrates a single event,
yet
continues the
main emphases of chapters 1-5. N. Habel suggests that
this
episode unfolds like other OT call stories22 and therefore divides
Isaiah 6 as
follows: (1) divine confrontation (6:1-2); (2) introductory
word
(6:3-7); (3) commission (6:8-10); (4) objection (6:11a); (5) reas-
surance (6:11b-13).23 Habel notes that God offers Isaiah no sign like
those
given Moses and Gideon.24
There are several difficulties with this arrangement. First, it is
not
logical to divide 6:1-2 from 6:3-4, because both texts narrate
connecting
parts of the same vision. The scene is broken by Isaiah's
speech in
6:5. Second, Isaiah's startled "how long?" (
''as bold
as'' the objections "of Jeremiah or Moses"25 as Habel asserts.
Jeremiah
gives a reason for not prophesying and has significant later
confrontations with Yahweh.26 Moses makes repeated excuses for not
leading
has
already volunteered to go do God's work (6:8). It is best, then, to
leave
culty of Isaiah's ministry to a
soon-to-be-judged nation. Third, Habel's
labelling of 6:11b-13 as "reassurance" is
questionable. Certainly
Isaiah
learns that judgment will not last forever and that punishment
will help
forge a new, purified people (
no
special promise of God's presence as did Moses (Exod
promise of
survival as did Jeremiah (Jer
focus on
immediate struggle and long-term hope. The volunteer is
learning his
task. Isaiah 6 is a call story, but it does not match Habel's
divisions
exactly.
Hayes and
6:1-4
describes Isaiah's vision of God, that 6:5-7 presents Isaiah's
22
Norman Habel, 'The Form and Significance of the Call
Narratives," ZAW 77
(1965) 298.
23 Ibid.,
310-12.
24 Ibid., 312.
25 Ibid.
26 Note Jeremiah's "confessions" found in
23; and
20:7-18.
214 CRISWELL THEOLOGICAL REVIEW
"sense of unworthiness; and that 6:8-13 details Isaiah's commis-
sion.27 Clements claims that
text and
therefore separates 6:8-11 and
agrees with
Hayes and
Young simply
divides the chapter into vision (6:1-7) and commission
(6:8-13),
while Gray separates the passage into vision (6:1-4), effect
on
Isaiah (6:5-8), and message for
Given the chapter's generic and thematic characteristics, it is
best
to
adopt the following combination of the suggestions made by Hayes
and
1. Isaiah's
Vision of God (6:1-4);
2. Isaiah's
Sin and its Cleansing (6:5-7);
3. Isaiah's
Commission (6:8-10);
4. Isaiah's
Difficult Ministry and
This ordering
reflects the main ideas in chapters 1-5. God reveals him-
self to a
disobedient people bound for punishment (1:1-31). Unlike these
people,
Isaiah repents, and receives the dubious honor of preaching to
a
rebellious nation. As 2:1-5 and 4:2-6 state, however,
a
future, but one forged from the fires of a punishing day of Yahweh
(2:6-4:1).
Thus, the structural progression in Isaiah 1-6 is fairly clear:
1. God's
Complaint against
2.
4:6);
3.
"Woes" Connected with
4. Isaiah's
Call to Minister to the Rebellious Nation (6:1-13).
The Placement of Isaiah 6
As has been noted above, Isaiah 6's placement in the book has
caused much
discussion. Some of the debate stems from curiosity about
a call
story so late in a prophecy, while concern about chronology fuels
other
discussions. Scholars normally accept variations on two basic so-
lutions. Either this chapter discusses Isaiah's initial
call, and the func-
tion of chapters 1-5 must be considered as an
introductory word of
some
kind, or chapter 6 begins a second phase of the prophet's work.
Most commentators adopt the first solution. E. J. Young and
G. Grogan
simply believe Isaiah stresses his message more than him-
self.30 This theory does not explain why Isaiah would ever insert him-
27
Hayes and
28 Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 72.
29 Young, Isaiah 1-18,231,253; Gray, Isaiah 1-27;
102-9.
30 Cf. Young, Isaiah 1-18, 234, and Grogan, 54.
Paul House:
ISAIAH'S CALL AND ITS CONTEXT IN ISAIAH 1-6 215
self into
the story, or why more of the major elements of Isaiah's
message are
not included in chapters 1-5. Gray, Kaiser, and Clements
follow K. Budde's contention that 6:1-8:18 forms "a memoir
written by
the
prophet himself, and relating to prophecies at the time of the
Syro-Ephraimite war."31 These authors therefore argue that redac-
tional concerns account for the call story
coming after other material.
Chapters 1-5
and 6:1-8:18 may have existed as separate collections be-
fore
being joined by a final editor. Though this redactional
reconstruc-
tion deserves extensive discussion, it is
impossible to do so here. It is
only
possible to note the function of chapters 1-5 and chapter 6 in
this
viewpoint. Clements states that the main "theme of this memoir
is how Ahaz came to refuse the message which Isaiah gave to
him"
and how
this refusal brought punishment on king and people.32 Simi-
larly, Kaiser concludes that the call account
reveals "that God's judg-
ment was already decreed when he called him to
a task that went
beyond all
normal feeling and understanding."33 Both Kaiser and
Clements
highlight refusal and judgment. To them, chapters 1-5 an-
nounce these themes, chapter 6 calls Isaiah to
proclaim them, and
chapters 7-12
show the prophet experiencing them.
P. Ackroyd, L. Liebreich,
and J. Oswalt believe that chapter 6
serves as
both "a suitable conclusion to the chapters before it, and an
equally
suitable introduction to the chapters which follow."34 Liebre-
ich thinks Isaiah 6 draws together the early
chapters' emphases on
God's
holiness and
portrayal of
Yahweh as king contrasts the activity of
kings in
chapters 7-12.36 Ackroyd says that Isaiah
1-12 introduces Isa-
iah's role as preacher of doom and hope. Given
this purpose for the
whole
section, chapter 6 draws together both
future"
and its present "recognition of failure and doom."37 Thus,
the
chapter does balance this major section of the book.
Oswalt agrees that the "recognition of the
double function of
chapter 6 is
fundamental to an understanding of its position in the
book."38
He decides, however, that chapters 1-5 are very broad and
introductory. Therefore, chapter 6 does conclude chapters 1-5, but
does more
as well. The text also introduces chapters 7-39 by offering
31 Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 70. Cf. Gray, Isaiah 1-27, 99, and
Kaiser, Isaiah 1-12, 73.
32 Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 71.
33
Kaiser, Isaiah 1-12, 73.
34 Liebreich, "The Position of
Chapter Six," 40.
35 Ibid., 38-39. See also this article's discussion of the
structure of Isaiah 1-6.
36 Ibid., 39.
37 Ackroyd, "Isaiah 1-12, 45.
38 Oswalt, Isaiah 1-39, 173.
216 CRISWELL THEOLOGICAL REVIEW
or they
can rebel and face the devastation outlined in
Ackroyd,
then, Oswalt claims that Isaiah's call sets him apart
as a
preacher of
hope that emerges from doom. He also uses Isaiah as a
paradigm of
Some authors adopt the position that Isaiah 6 announces a new
phase of
Isaiah's ministry. J. Calvin argues that chapters 1-6 are chro-
nologically correct. Isaiah receives a prophetic call
"after that he had
for some
time discharged the office of a teacher."40 Calvin assumes a
chronological ordering of the book, but such an ordering was unneces-
sary for the original audience, since 1:1
divulges the book's setting. His
emphasis on
Isaiah's work as teacher may also reflect Calvin's belief
that
teachers "have an ordinary office in the church."41 At any
rate,
Calvin's
position has no textual evidence other than the position of
chapter 6.
Hayes and
1-5 and
chapters 6-12 reflect different settings. The early chapters
are
addressed to a general audience, and admonish "the population
about
particular actions, ethical stances, and faith postures."42
Later
chapters deal
with problems among "the Davidic court and its sup-
porters in
1-5 are
Isaiah's attempt to change
Though the
rhetorical styles vary somewhat in chapters 1-5 and 6-12,
there are
also several similarities. Too,
rulers, and
Isaiah never mentions the earthquake noted in Amos 1-2
and Zech
14:5. Thus, Hayes and
need to
sustain their argument.
Isaiah 6 does act as a linking text. Chapters 1-5 detail the sins
of
Clearly the
nation ought to repent, yet refuses to do so. Chapter 6 ad-
mits this national sin and announces its
long-term cure. Chapters 7-
12 explain
how Isaiah announces the cure to the rebellious people
but has
little success in changing them. Thus, the reader learns
is a
difficult audience, Isaiah has a difficult task, and Isaiah will expe-
rience a difficult ministry.
39 Ibid., 174-76.
40 John
Calvin, Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Isaiah, chapters 1-32
(trans. William Pringle; reprinted, Grand Rapids: Baker,
1989) 199.
41 John
Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion (trans. Ford L. Battles;
re-
printed,
John T McNeill;
42
Hayes and
43 Ibid., 63.
44 Ibid., 69-78.
Paul House:
ISAIAH'S CALL AND ITS CONTEXT IN ISAIAH 1-6 217
Contents of Isaiah 6
N. Habel correctly identifies Isaiah 6
as a call story.45 Though
there are
problems with his division of the text, as has been noted,
Habel does
reveal that Isaiah 6 parallels call stories like those of
Gideon, Moses, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. Each account includes an ap-
pearance of, or statement from, Yahweh, a
commission, and a com-
ment about the difficulty of each person's
ministry. These elements,
along with
Isaiah's sense of sinfulness, provide the four main the-
matic divisions of this chapter.
Isaiah
6:1-4: Isaiah's Vision of God
6:1. Isaiah says his call occurs "in the
year of king Uzziah's death,"
which is a
difficult date to determine. Hayes and
dates
scholars assign the kings of Isaiah's era "may vary as much as a
decade or
more."46 Uzziah's reign is
particularly hard to fix, since he is
co-regent with
his son Jotham in the last years of his life (2
Chronicles
26-21). Bright's 742 date for Uzziah's death, though, leaves enough time
for the
events of Jotham, Ahaz, and
Hezekiah's reigns.47
Many scholars argue that Uzziah's death
greatly affected Isaiah.
For example,
G. A. Smith thinks this king, who had led
tively, was probably the young prophet's hero.48
Oswalt notes that
Uzziah was
the only king Isaiah had known. Thus, his death, and the
mounting
Assyrian threat brought on by Tiglath-Pileser III's ascen-
dancy, helped Isaiah realize that
spiritual and
political decisions would soon be made. Smith's theory is
intriguing, but
has no support in the text. Oswalt's comments are
probably accurate.
Early readers of Isaiah would definitely recognize
the
transitional nature of this time.50
Isaiah sees "Adonai sitting on a
throne, high and lifted up." This
phrase
refers to God's kingship and sovereignty, images that appear
throughout the
book (e.g., chaps. 13-23; 37:23-24; 40:18-22). Uzziah
may be
dead, but the Lord remains sovereign. A second image rein-
forces this
picture of greatness. The edges of Adonai's robes are
"filling the temple." God is too magnificent for the
temple to contain.
45 Habel, "The Form and
Significance."
46
Hayes and
47
Bright, History, 254.
48 G A
Smith, The Book of Isaiah, chapters 1-39
(rev. ed.;
1927). 58.
49 Oswalt, Isaiah 1-39, 177.
50 Of
course the call could have come before Uzziah's
death. Cf. Gray, Isaiah 1-27,
102. Still,
readers would note the changing political scene.
218 CRISWELL THEOLOGICAL REVIEW
6:2.
"Seraphim," or "burning ones," stand before the Lord. This
term is
used several ways in the Old Testament, including to describe
a
burning serpent (Num 21:6) or flying serpent (Isa
Here the
word applies to six-winged creatures who fly before the
Lord,
praising him as they go (6:3). The mighty God has unusual
courtiers.
6:3. These "burning ones" increase the distance between
the Lord
and
human beings. Isa 5:16, 19, and 24 have already
established God's
holiness.52 Now the "seraphim" declare tOxbAc; hvAhy; wOdqA wOdqA
wOdqA
(qados qados qados YHWH sebaot
"Holy, holy, holy is Yahweh of
hosts").
Some writers have been tempted to find the trinity in this
formula, but
Young rightly concludes, "The number three seems to be
employed
primarily for the sake of emphasis."53 God is totally dif-
ferent in nature, character, and worth from the
human race or the
seraphim.
Engnell observes that the second half of 6:3 also
carries "em-
phatic import."54 Not only is
Yahweh holy, he also fills the earth with
"his glory." The phrase OdObK; Cr,xAhA-lkA xlom;
(melo' kol-ha'ares kebodo)
parallels lkAyheha-tx Myxilem: vylAUwv; (wesulayw mele'im 'et-hahekal)
from 6:1.
God's gJory fills the earth, just as it fills the throneroom of
the
Lord. The ruler of the earth governs by inherent holiness. This
verse
sounds wonderful until one realizes that "where God's glory is
manifested,
there is judgment for sin, for the two cannot exist side by
side. . .
. "55 Yahweh's ethical perfection ("holy") makes his
presence
("glory") eliminate sin.
6:4. The initial vision of God ends with the building's founda-
tions shaking at the voices of the seraphim,
and the area filling with
smoke. The
reference to smoke re-emphasizes Yahweh's presence.
Engnell
notes that smoke accompanies appearances of God in Exod
40:34 and 1 Kgs 8:10ff. as well.56
Smoke covers God in Leviticus 16, so
perhaps
smoke protects Isaiah from viewing the Lord, which could
cause
Isaiah's death. Regardless of the smoke's exact
purpose, Isaiah
has now
seen evidence of Yahweh's greatness, heard the seraphim's
comments on
God's holiness, and felt the shaking of the building. His
senses have
been assaulted by Yahweh's power.
51 BDB, 977.
52 Cf. Liebreich, "The Position of Chapter Six," 38-40.
53 Young, Isaiah 1-18, 244.
54 Engnell, The Call of
Isaiah; 37.
55 Oswalt, Isaiah 1-39, 181.
56 Engnell, The Call of
Isaiah, 37.
Paul House:
ISAIAH'S CALL AND ITS CONTEXT IN ISAIAH 1-6 219
Other scenes
of a divine throne room appear in the OT.
For in-
stance Job
1-2 portrays the Lord and Satan in conversation in God's
"control room." The text that parallels 6:1-4 the most,
however, is
1 Kgs 22:19ff. Here God sits on a throne, has heavenly
messengers,
and
reveals a message to a prophet. The texts differ, though, since one
of the
heavenly beings carries the Lord's message, not a human
prophet, and
there is no prophetic commissioning in 1 Kings 22. Ap-
parently Isaiah shares a common OT vision.
Certainly the whole OT
attempts to
explain in understandable terms how Yahweh rules the
universe.57
Isaiah
6:5-7: Isaiah's Sin and its Cleansing
6:5. Given his experience in 6:1-4, it is no wonder Isaiah cries,
"Woe is
me, for I am ruined." This "woe" (yOx ['oy])
parallels
"woe" (yOh [hoy])
in 5:8-23, except that Isaiah is wise enough to sense
his own
"woe," unlike
"woe" on it. Why does Isaiah feel so unworthy? Because
he knows he
is
"a man of unclean lips" ( MyitapAW;-xmeF;. wyxi yKi [ki teme' sepatayim])
who
lives in a nation filled with unclean lips.
"Unclean" often refers to ceremonial uncleanness in the
OT,58 so
perhaps
Isaiah feels unworthy to remain in God's temple. F. Delitzsch
suggests that
Isaiah mentions his lips because he could not match the
praise of
the seraphim.59 Clements offers a better solution. He claims
Isaiah
realizes his unfitness to act as God's spokesman.60 Thus, Isaiah's
unclean lips
make it an unlikely prophet, just as
lips"
make it a poor elect nation. Both Isaiah and the nation should ex-
pect "woe" for their
"uncleanness." Isaiah fears for another reason.
Not only is
he a sinner, but he has also seen God. Jacob has a similar
fear, as
does Yahweh for Moses (Gen 32:30; Exod 33:20).
Clearly,
Isaiah has
good reason to feel "ruined."
6:6-7. The Seraphim immediately come to
Isaiah's aid. They pu-
rify his lips with a coal from the divine
altar. God's desire to cleanse
and
forgive is evident. Isaiah can now speak for God. Besides Yah-
weh's kindness, this cleansing emphasizes the
stupidity of
57 Note Habel's contention that the similarities between Isaiah 6
and 1 Kgs
21
strengthen the argument that Isaiah 6 is indeed a typical call story. Habel, “The
Form and Significance," 310.
58 BDB, 379-80.
59
Franz Delitzsch, Isaiah (reprinted;
60 Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 75.
220 CRISWELL THEOLOGICAL REVIEW
continued
rebellion. Forgiveness would come just as quickly for
as for
Isaiah if the nation would change.
Isaiah
6:8-10: Isaiah's Commission
6:8.
Gratitude leads to service. Isaiah hears God ask "Whom
shall I
send, and who will go for us?" Yahweh allows Isaiah to volun-
teer. Calvin believes "for us" (UnlA [lanu]) refers to the trinity, and Gro-
gan says the phrase suggests God's majesty or
"fullness of being."61
Oswalt
thinks, in light of 1 Kgs 22:19-21, that "for
us" probably refers
to the
heavenly council, which is probably the best interpretation.62
Regardless of the identity of "us," Isaiah feels
compelled to answer
the
question. His ykiHelAw; ynin;hi (hinni
selaheni, "Here I am, send me!")
echoes
other obedient cries of ynin;hi, such as Abraham's in Gen 22:1
and
Jeremiah.63
Isaiah responds unreservedly to the all-powerful and all-
merciful
Lord.
6:9-10. Now Isaiah learns the specifics of his
task. The MT reads
that he
must tell the people, "Listen and listen, but do not understand.
Look and
look, but never perceive" (6:9). Then
imperatives--"make fat" (Nmew;ha [hasmen]),
"make heavy" (dBek;ha [hak-
bed]),
and "shut" (fwahA [hasa'])--to
describe Isaiah's effect on the peo-
ple's heart, ears, and eyes. Since the hiphil carries causative force, it
appears that
Isaiah must intend to harden the people.
C. A. Evans notes that the Dead Sea Scrolls change the negative
particle lxa ('al)
in 6:9 to lfa ('al),
which would mean Isaiah must
preach to
effect understanding and knowledge. Further, the first
hiphil imperative (jmew;ha) has no nun, which changes the word's
meaning to
"make appalled." In this reading
saves them
from horrible sights and sounds.64 Evans also observes
that the
LXX makes the verses descriptive, not imperatival.65 Thus,
both the
"from Yahweh and his prophet to the people themselves."66
Four factors argue in favor of the MTs
reading of Isaiah's task.
First, changing
the first hiphil imperative does not totally blunt
the
next two.
Why would an appalled heart cause heavy ears and
closed
eyes?
Second, the latter half of
61 Calvin, Isaiah 1-32, 213; Grogan, EBC, 57.
62 Oswalt, Isaiah 1-39, 185. .
63 Cf.
Kaiser, Isaiah 1-12,82.
64 C. A Evans, "The Text of Isaiah 6:9-10," ZAW
94 (1982) 416.
65 Ibid.
66 Ibid., 418.
Paul House:
ISAIAH'S CALL AND ITS CONTEXT IN IsAIAH 1-6 221
junction
"lest" (NP, [pen]).67
The second half of the verse explains what
the
first half seeks to avoid, and adding a vav
("and") to NP,, as
Evans
suggests,68 does not erase this syntactical
intention. Third, chaps. 1-5
have
already established
will make
them even more callous. Fourth, Isaiah's startled reaction
in
pointment at a lack of response. Therefore, Isaiah
must live with the
fact that
he will preach repentance, but that this preaching will
harden his
hearers.
Isaiah
6:11-13: Isaiah's Difficult Ministry and
6:11. A startled Isaiah inquires "how long" he must
pursue this
mission. Engnell states "that the Hebrew ytamA-dfa ('ad-matay) is a
technical term
from the phraseological fund of the lamentation
psalms. . .
. "69 Often the question is asked in frustration, or during a
time of
perceived injustice (cf. Pss 74:10; 82:2; 94:3).70
This phrase is
not a
response to a normal instructional assignment. God's answer is
not
typical either. Isaiah must preach until the cities have no inhabi-
tants and the land lies "utterly desolate;
or until the threats made in
2:6-4:1 come
true.
6:12-13. Several scholars, including Clements and
Kaiser,71 think
these
verses are an addition to the text, since they speak of deporta-
tion, desolation, and a remnant. In this view,
post-exilic
times to explain the Assyrian and Babylonian invasions
and to
offer the exiles hope. Isaiah's predictions of doom were thereby
vindicated and
his predictions of hope kept alive.72
Linguistic and thematic details argue against this position. Eng-
nell asserts that the verses' stylistic unity
is evident, since the devasta-
tion images build to the announcement of a
"holy seed" (wd,qo fraz,
[zera' qodes]), a
remnant, for the holy God.73 Verse 11 ends with a
play on
words that continues in v 12. The houses will have no "man"
(MdAxA ['adam]), the "ground" (hmAdAxEhAv; [we'ha'adama]) will be desolate,
and
Yahweh will "remove men (MdAxAhA [ha'adam])
far away." Also, the
metaphors of
desolation in 6:11b and 6:12b are similar. It is logical to
67 BDB,814.
68
Evans, "The Text," 416.
69 Engnell, The Call of
Isaiah, 44-45.
70 BDB, 607.
71 Kaiser, Isaiah 1-12, 84; Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 78.
72 Cf. Ackroyd, "Isaiah 1-12," 46.
73 Engnell, The Call of
Isaiah, 47.
222 CRISWELL THEOLOGICAL REVIEW
conclude that
a hard, impenitent nation under God's judgment will
lose the
land.
threats.
Despite the horrors described in 6:9-12, all is not lost. There
will
still be a
"tenth" (hy.ArWifE ['asiriya])
in the land.74 This remnant may
be
burned, it may be like a felled tree, but it will survive. Restoration,
like that
outlined in 4:2-6, will emerge at some future point.
will
never lack a "holy seed." Isaiah learns that he will get to an-
nounce restoration, not just sin and punishment.
Conclusion
Isaiah 6 draws together the main thematic emphases of chaps.
1-5. The God
who delivered
(5:1-7)
remains a powerful, holy Lord (6:1- 4).
sin and
must face the day of Yahweh (cf. 2:6-4:1 and 6:9-12). Re-
newal will overtake the nation's wickedness
only when punishment
has done
its work (
Isaiah 6 also instills great respect in readers for Isaiah the
prophet. No
part of his mission is easy, as chaps. 7-12 reveal Thus, he
embodies
way to
the nation's future blessings. Like Moses, who must deal with
Pharaoh's
hardened heart, and Jeremiah, who can expect total opposi-
tion, Isaiah's commission is extremely
difficult. He can expect few
positive
results. He can expect restoration to come at a high national
cost.
Still, he can depend on the power, holiness, and mercy of God.
The holy God
must destroy sin, yet will do so to create a holy people.
74
Verse 13 is notorious for its textual problems, and these difficulties cannot
be
explored
here. Still, the restoration theme emerges in any reconstruction of the text.
This
material is cited with gracious permission from:
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