Grace
Journal 8.2 (Spring 1967) 40-48.
Copyright © 1967 by Grace
Theological Seminary. Cited with permission.
THE RHETORICAL USE OF
NUMBERS
IN THE OLD
TESTAMENT
JOHN
J. DAVIS
Instructor,
Hebrew and Old Testament
Grace
Theological Seminary
A very important use of numbers in
the aid Testament is that for rhetorical
or
poetic effect. Whenever numbers are so used they are not to be understood
literally nor
symbolically. Much effort has been
expended attempting to ascertain
some
hidden or mysterious meaning of rhetorical phrases using numbers. The
intention of
the writer in this usage is not to emphasize the mathematical value of
the
number primarily, but to express either in concepts such as "few, "
"many,"
etc.
There are, therefore, two basic
applications of numbers in poetic structure.
THE CLIMACTIC USE OF
NUMBERS
The arrangement of a numeral with
its sequel within a clause, either
syndetically or asyndetically, in Scripture is a
common poetic device with
numerous
parallels in contemporary literature. The intention of such a device is to
express the
concept of intensification and/or progression. The actual value of the
numbers in
such cases is not significant.
This phenomenon is perhaps best
expressed in the formula x/x+ 1. It occurs
principally in
poetic passages but not exclusively. Syntactically x/x+ 1 may appear
in the
same sentence or in two different sentences. In most instances in the Old
Testament it
appears in poetical passages employing synonymous, synthetic and
antithetical parallelisms. The
following is a list of the occurrences of the x/x+ 1
sequences in
the Old Testament:
Sequence 1/2 -Judges 5:30; Deut. 32:30; II Kings
62:11; Job
33:14, 40:5; Ezra 10: 13; Neh.13:20.
Sequence 2/3 -Deut. 17:6; II Kings 9:32; Isa.
17:6; Hos. 6:2; Amos 4:8; Job
33:29.
Sequence 3/4 -Ex. 20:5; 34:7; Num. 14:8; Deut. 5:9; Jer. 36:23; Amos 1:3,
6, 9, 11,
13, 2:1, 4, 6; Prov. 30:15, 18, 21, 29.
The above
article is taken from the author's doctoral dissertation presented to the
faculty of
Grace Theological Seminary in 1967.
40
THE
RHETORICAL USE OF NUMBERS IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 41
Sequence 4/5 -Isa. 17:6. I
Sequence 5/6 -II Kings
Sequence 6/7 -Job
Sequence 7/8 -Micah 5:4.
Sequence 8/9 -none.
Sequence 9/10 -none.
Sequence 1000/10,000 -Deut. 32:30; I Sam. 18:7, 21, 29:5; Psa. 91:7.
The above list includes occurrences of this type of expression in
both prose
and
poetic passages and it does not distinguish between the two fundamental types
of
occurrence.1
X/X+ 1 As A
Poetic Device
The
most striking use of this device is found in poetic portions of the Old
Testament. It is frequently employed in synonymous,
synthetic and antithetic
parallelisms and when it is thus employed, the numbers should generally be
regarded as
parallel. Roth explains this point in the following manner:
Since there is no other expression for a
given numeral than the
numeral itself, the numeral one unit lower serves
as a parallel term; a
phenomenon as strange to us as it is characteristic
of Semitic poetic parallelism.2
In this
usage of x/x+ 1 formula there is little or no regard for the actual
mathematical value of the numbers employed. For example Amos speaks of the
anger of
Yahweh in the following manner:
. . . for three transgressions of
the punishment thereof. . .3
It is
evident that the writer is not attempting to total the sins of
purpose is
to show climax and finality by means of numbers in progression. In
fact, the
fundamental function of this idiom is to strengthen and intensify the
parallelism in
such a manner that the reader cannot escape its impact. This
observation is
clearly illustrated in the following examples where the
wrath or
the end of patience is the theme:
For God speaketh once, yea twice, though
man regardeth it not (Job 33:14
ASV).
Once have I spoken, and I will not answer; Yea, twice but I will
proceed no
of
further. (Job 40:5 ASV).
42 GRACE JOURNAL
Micah also
illustrates this Phenomenon:
. . . then shall we raise against him
seven shepherds, and eight principal
men (Micah 5:5 ASV).
In each one
of the above examples other numbers could have been substituted and
the
meaning or impact would not have been violated. The precise literary value of
the
formula x/x+ 1 was not recognized until recent years when contemporary
inscriptions were made to bear on Hebrew grammar and syntax. Older
grammarians
concluded that numbers in this arrangement merely expressed "a
number not
exactly specified or an indefinite total."4 This analysis is
not incorrect
but
merely incomplete. There are cases when juxtaposition of two numbers in
progression do
indicate an indefinite total, but these do not constitute the majority
of
cases. With the appearance of Ugaritic poetry the
student of Biblical studies had
at his
disposal a rich supply cognate parallels for this numerical phenomenon. This
literary
device was used freely by the scribes at
effectiveness. In the Baal Epic x/x+1 sequence of numbers is used to create
literary
climax with regard to Baal's view of sacrifice:
For two (kinds of) banquets Baal hates,
Three the rider of the clouds:
A banquet (banquet) of baseness,
And a banquet of handmaids' lewdness.
(Baal II, iii, 16-21)5
After Baal
was furnished with a temple, he made al journey to claim the domains
which were
rightly his. The description of the journey employs climatic numbers:
Sixty-six towns he took,
Seventy-seven hamlets;
Eighty (took) Baal of (Zaphon's) s(ummit),
Ninety Baal of the sum(mit).
(Baal II, vii, 9-12).6
It appears
that the scribes utilized this device to intensify the emotion of a given
event or
act, for in the majority of occurrences of this phenomenon strong
emotions are
expressed (e. g. anger, love, etc.) or violent actions are expressed. In
the Baal
and Anat epics there is a good, example of this practice.
Baal apparently
meets with
a tragic death and the weeping, mourning, etc. of the other gods is
described in
vivid language. In this portion of the text which is wrath
fragmented
there are no less than five occurrences of climactic numbers.7 Note
the
intense
sadness and frustrations of this occasion:
Wine of is [ryt]
number [ ]
Like the seven cries of his mouth
Yea his eight shrieks.
The sun---
She goes to seek [ ]
THE
RHETORICAL USE OF NUMBERS IN 1H OLD TESTAMENT 43
The Sun after him [
]
One place, two places [
]
One place, two places [ ]
The foundation(s) of the sea [ ]
Weeping, fills [
]
Tears of [ ]8
The Legend
of Krt,9 and the Legend of Aqht,10
also contain numerous examples of
climactic
numbers. Aramaean
literature also gives evidence of this practice. In an
Aramaean
Magical text dating from the seventh century B.C. the following
appears:
[wives of Hauron,
whose utterance is true and his seven concubines and the
eight wives of Baal.11
Examples of
this literary device are not common in Akkadian
literature. When
numerical
climaxes do occur, they are more subtle and not as redundant as is the
case with
Ugaritic epics.
The more common form of this sequence is used in
relation with
days and nights.12 In Die Assyrische Beschworungssammlung
Maglu
there are two passages dealing with incantations against witches which
employ
numerical climax:
He, meine Zauberin
oder meine
Spukmacherin,
die auf eine Meile
ein Feuer anziindet, /
auf zwei Meilen ihren Boten geschickt
hat. . . 13
Zwei sind die Tochter des Himmelsgottes Anu, /
Drei sind die Tochter des Himmelsgottes Anu.14
When an
ancient scribe wished to express magnitude along with intensity of
expression in a
parallelism he would, in most cases, employ large numbers for his
x/x+l sequence. A favorite combination of the scribes at
In a banquet
scene recorded in the Baal and Anat cycles the
following passage
attempts to
show the great amount of the wine presented to Baal:
He stands, serves liquor, and gives him drink.
He places a cup in his hand,
A flagon in the grasp of his hand;
A vessel large and conspicuous.
A jar to dumbfound a mortal;
A holy cup of woman ne'er seen,
Only Asherah beholds such a flagon.
He takes a thousand pots of wine,
Mixes ten thousand in his mixture.15
44 GRACE JOURNAL
Later in the
epic we read:
[O'er] thousand ['fields' in the] sea,
Ten thousand [acres] in the floods.
[Tra]verse Gabal, traverse Qa 'al,
Traverse lhat-nop-shamem. . .
From a thousand fields, ten thousand acres,
At Kotha[r]s feet bow and fall down,
Prostrate thee and do him honor.16
This
literary device was also known to the Old Testament scribes and was used by
them
numerous occasions. The question raised in Deut. 32:30 is an example of this
phenomenon:
How should one chase a thousand,
and two put ten thousand to flight,
except their rock had sold them,
and the Lord had shut them up?17
Again in Psa. 91:7 we read:
A thousand shall fall at thy side,
and ten thousand at they right hand;
but it shall not come nigh thee.18
The other
occurrences of this expression are found in antithetic parallelisms. The
song
dedicated to David employs these two numbers and their effectiveness is
illustrated by
Saul's immediate response.19
And the women answered one another
as they played, and said,
Saul hath slain his thousands and20
David his ten thousands (I Sam. 18:7 KJV).
"It is
obvious that in this verse the two numbers are contrasted with each other in
accordance with
the intention of the verse, that is, the exaltation of David over
Saul."21
The interpretation of numbers which occur in the numerical sequence
x/x+l in synonymous, synthetic and antithetic parallelisms, therefore,
must be
interpreted in
the light of the literary idiom and context, not necessarily the actual
value of
the number. This does not mean that the numbers employed the x/x+1
sequence in
parallelism never have mathematical value, for they quite commonly
do.
Their literary and/or mathematical values must be determined by the context
alone.
X/X+ 1 As A
Mathematical Expression
As observed above, there are instances when the climactic formula
x/x+l
does have
actual numerical value. When this formula takes on numerical
value, it
will usually be found
THE
RHETORICAL USE OF NUMBERS IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 45
opening
lines of a text, and the value usually referred to will be the second number
n
(i.e. x+1). Prov. 30:18 reads:
There be three things which are too wonderful for me,
yea, four which I know not.22
In the
verses that follow four things are actually listed. Ugaritic
literature also
employs the
x/x+ 1 sequence in the same manner. In the Baal Epic, to which we
have
already alluded, there is an excellent example of this phenomenon:
Baal hates two sacrifices,
Three, the Rider of Clouds:
The sacrifice of shame
And the sacrifice of baseness'
And the sacrifice of the murmur of handmaids.23
Examples of
numerical sayings of this type are also found in Aramaic. In the
Ahiqar text
from
following has
been preserved:
Two things are an ornament (to a man),
of three there is pleasure to Samas:
One who drinks (?) wine
and also gives it (to others) to drink,
one who restrains (his) wisdom. . . (?)
and (one who) hears a thing and does not
reveal (it to others).24
In the above
examples the literary force of the numerical phrase is the same as the
examples
cited in synonymous parallelisms, but with the additional factor of the
numbers
having actual mathematical values. In all cases examined, in both the
Bible and
extra-biblical literature, the only number receiving literal values was the
second
(x+1) which was always the higher number.
THE IDIOMATIC USE OF NUMBERS
In the Old Testament and in extra-biblical literature there is a
large group of
numerical
sayings that are, in meaning, different from the above, but at the same
time
share in some fundamental structural similarities. In both poetical and prose
portions of
the Old Testament there are numerous times when the sequence x/x+ 1
is
found as one phrase in one sentence. The
numbers either appear asyndetically
one
beside the other or are joined by the waw have
conjunction especially when a
preposition or
negation stands between the two numbers.25 The following Old
Testament
passages belong to this group:
46 GRACE JOURNAL
. . . a maiden or two for every man
(Judges
. . . who is on my side? Who? Two or
three eunuchs looked out at him
(II Kings
9:32)
. . .we cannot stand in the open. Nor is
this a work for one day or for two. . .
(Exra 10:13).
On the evidence of two witnesses or of three witnesses he that is
to die shall
be put
to death. . . (Deut. 17:6).
Gleanings will be left in it, as when an olive tree is beaten
two or three berries in the top of the highest bough, four or five on
the
branches of a fruit tree. . . (Isa.
17:6).
So two or three cities wandered to one city . . . (Amos 4:8).26
The same
sequence is employed in the New Testament:
For where two or three are gathered together in my name, there am
I in the
midst of them (Matt.
Now there were six waterpots of stone
set there after the Jews' manner of
purifying, containing two or three firkins apiece
(John 2:6).27
In all these
instances the addition of the second number calls attention to the fact
that the
first number is not meant to be an exact sum. When, therefore, the
sequence x/x+l appears in juxtaposition in a single phrase, the
reference is always
to a
somewhat indefinite numerical value. Perhaps it is intended to express the
concept of a
"few" or "a small number."
There are abundant parallels to this phenomenon in extra-biblical
texts. In
the
Gilgamesh Epic (Old Babylonian Version), Tablet II, col. II, lines 6, 7 the
following
sequence occurs:
For six days and seven nights Enkidu
came forth
Mating with the l[ass].28
The Middle
Assyrian Laws also provide a parallel: I
If a seignior's wife, having deserted her husband, has entered the
house of
an Assyrian, whether it was in the same city or in some neighboring
city,
where he set her up in a house, (and) she stayed with the mistress of
the
house (and) spent the night (there) three (or) four
times, without the master
of the house knowing that the seignior's wife was staying in his
house. . .29
Evidence for
the use of this literary device in Egyptian and Hittite cultures is
found in
the version of the "Treaty Between the Hittites and
. . . if a man or two men--no matter who
flee. . . (Egyptian version).
THE
RHETORICAL USE OF NUMBERS IN TH OLD TESTAMENT 47
If one man flees from
In all
instances the sequence x/x+ 1 has the idea of a "few."
SUMMARY
In the Old Testament and in contemporary Semitic and non -Semitic
inscriptions the numerical sequence x/x+l can be
utilized in two ways: (1) It may
be
employed in a synonymous, synthetic or antithetic parallelism and when it is so
employed, it
functions to climax or intensify the sense. The numbers mayor may
not have
mathematical values. The determination of possible numerical values in
this
usage must be derived from the context in which the expression occurs. (2) It
could be
used merely to indicate a concept such as a "few. " In most instances
of
this type
the sequence occurs in the same phrase and it mayor may not take the
conjunction.
DOCUMENTATION
1. One type is when the expression x/x+l occurs in on~ sentence and the other is
when it occurs in two separate sentences.
2. W. M. W.
Roth, "The Numerical Sequence x/x+l in the Old
Testament, " Vetus
Testamentum, Vol. 12 (July, 1962),
p. 304.
3. Amos 1:3 cf. 1:6, 9, 11, 13; 2:1, 4, 6.
4. Kautzsch, ed., Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar, I 2nd. ed. rev. by
A. E. Cowley
(Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1910), p. 437.
5. J. B.
Pritchard, ed. Ancient Near Eastern Texts (Princeton:
Press, 1955), p. 132.
6 . Ibid., p. 134.
7. Cyrus H. Gordon, Ugaritic
Literature (
1949), pp. 55, 56. c
8 Ibid., p. 56.
9. Ibid.,
Text 128:
10. Ibi., Text 3:30ff, p. 93.
11. W. F.
Albright, "An Aramaean Magical Text in Hebrew From the Seventh
Century B. C." Bulletin of the American Schools of
Oriental Research,
No. 76 (Dec., 1939), p. 9.
12. Cf. "The Epic of Gilgamesh," Tablet
VII:iv: ANET, p. 87.
13. Gerhard Meier, ed. Die assyrische
Beschworungssammlung Maglu
(
1937), p. 45 quoted by Roth, op. cit., p. 305, (Underlining mine).
14. Ibid.,
(Underline mine).
15.
"Poems about Baal and Anath" (VAB, A,)
ANET, p. 136.
16. Ibid.,
(VAB, F,) ANET, p. 138. Cf. also Baal II, viii, 24, p. 135.
48 GRACE JOURNAL
17. KJV.
18. Ibid.
19. I Sam.
18:8. This song gained such wide popularity that even the Philistines
knew (cf. I Sam. 29:5).
20. The
translation of the conjunction here is better I "but" than
"and" since the
poetry antithetic parallelism. Cf. also I Sam.
21: 11.
21. Roth, op.
cit., p. 303.
22. KJV ct. Psa. 62:11 Job 5:19, 33:14, 40:5; Prov. :16, 30:15, 21, 29.
23. Cyrus H.
Gordon, op. cit., p. 30.
24. A.
Cowley, ed., Aramaic Papyri of the Fifth Century B. C.,
(Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1923), p.
215 (col. IV, 92-93a).
25. Cf.
Roth, op. cit., p. 308.
26. All
verses from RSV. Cf. also Jer. 3: 14; Job 33:29; Ex.
20:5; II Kings 13:9;
Eccl. 11:2; and Jer. 36:23.
27. ASV.
Also cf. I Cor. 14:29 (Underlining mine).
28.
Translated by E. A. Speiser, ANET, p.
77.
29. Law #24,
Translator Theophile J. Meek, ANET, p. 182
(Underlining mine).
30. Egyptian
version translated by John A. Wilson, ANET, p. 200.
Hittite version translated by Albrecht Goetze,
ANET, p. 203.
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