Grace Theological Journal 10.2 (1989) 183-201

[Copyright © 1989 Grace Theological Seminary; cited with permission;

digitally prepared for use at Gordon and Grace Colleges and elsewhere]

 

 

PLUNDERING THE LION'S DEN-A

PORTRAIT OF DIVINE FURY

(NAHUM 2:3-11)

 

 

J. DARYL CHARLES

 

 

            Two books of the Bible end with a question. Both are found in

the prophetic corpus of the OT and both are addressing Nineveh.

One, however, depicts the reluctance of a prophet fleeing the presence

of the Lord--the book of Jonah; the other, written a century later,

reflects the burden of the prophet Nahum the Elkoshite, who decrees

the vengeance and fury of the Lord. In the one book, Nineveh

repents. In the other, Nineveh is ravaged. In light of the generally

accepted view that Nahum's prophecy dates between 650 and 612 B.C.

(the fall of Nineveh), the northern kingdom of Israel had long since

fallen. At approximately 700 B. C., Esarhaddon had secured his reign

in Assyria. Civil war however began to weaken the northern power

 some fifty years later, precipitating a slow deterioration. After 634

B. C., one may speak of the Assyrian demise, during which time the

Babylonian revolt, lasting roughly fourteen years, climaxes in the

year 612. It is the league of Babylonians and Medes which ultimately

destroys Nineveh. Nah 1:12 suggests that the city is not yet visibly

crumbling ("Though they are yet whole and numerous. . .”)

Nineveh, that imperial seat of the Assyrian Empire and cultic

seat of Istar, patron-goddess of war, had been used as Yahweh's

vessel to judge Israel. The tables were now being turned. Nineveh

herself was to become the besieged. In this vision-oracle of Nahum,

the audience is given a prophetic and exceedingly descriptive account

of the assault and sack of the Assyrian stronghold. Structurally, the

sack of Nineveh as depicted in the vision-report consists of three

components: the siege (2:1-5), vain resistance with capture and flight

(2:6-10), and the prophet's exultation over the destruction (2:11-13).

            Both Jonah and Nahum are a commentary on the character of

Yahweh. Interestingly, both draw as a reference point from Exod

34:6-7, an allusion to Yahweh's compassion and slowness to anger.

Jonah ultimately learns of Yahweh's mercy. It is Nahum who stresses

Yahweh's justice.

                                                            *    *    *

 

184                 GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

According to the command of Assur and Istar, I did march. . .

(from the Assurbanipal Annals)1

 

The immense armies of Assur I mustered, and went out to conquer

those cities. With powerful battering-rams I smashed their fortified walls

and reduced them to the ground. The people together with their possessions

I took as booty. Those cities. . . I devastated, destroyed, burned with fire.

(from the Sargon Annals)2

 

In the might and strength of the great gods, my lords, I marched

victoriously in Elam through his whole breadth. Turning back, with my

hands full due to my might, I returned to Assyria. .  .cities I conquered,

destroyed, laid waste and burned with fire. Their gods, their inhabi-

tants, their cattle and herds, their possessions, their goods, wagons,

horses, chariots, spears and other war-materials I led back to Assyria.

(from the Assurbanipal Annals)3

 

I felled with the sword 800 of their combat troops, I burned 3000

captives from them. 1 did not leave one of them alive as hostage. I

captured alive. . . their city ruler. I made a pile of their corpses. I burnt

their adolescent boys and girls. I flayed. . . their city ruler and draped

his skin over the wall of the city.

(from an inscription of Tigiath-Pileser 1)4

 

ASSYRIA, NINEVEH AND THE PROPHETIC BURDEN

In the Genesis 10 table of nations, a brief and somewhat more

personal narrative is found in the midst of an otherwise "dry" gene-

alogy delineating the offspring of Noah's sons following the flood. Of

interest are three particular items: (1) mention of Nimrod as "a

mighty hunter" (twice in v 9), (2) allusion to Nineveh (twice in vv

11-12), and (3) the statement that out of that land "he went forth to

Assur" (v 11). Certainly characteristic of his progeny to come, Nim-

rod5 exercised rule from Uruk in the south to Akkad in the north,

stretching eastward with the Tigris bordering on the west.6 Following

 

1 S. A. Smith, ed., Die Keilschrifttexte Asurbanipals, Konigs von Assyrien (668-

626 vor Christus) (2 vols.; Leipzig: Pfeiffer, 1887), 1.47 (col. 5), 61 (col. 8), 69 (col. 9),

75 (col. 10).

2 A. G. Lie, ed., The Inscriptions of Sargon II King of Assyria-Part I: The Annals

(Paris: Lib. Orient. P. Geuthner, 1929) 9.

3 Smith, Keilschrifttexte, 41-42 (col. 5).

4 A. K. Grayson, Assyrian Royal Inscriptions (2 vols.; Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz,

1975) 2.547.

5 Cf. Mic 5:5, where the prophet employs this older designation for "Assyria" in a

context of Assyrian military advance, the imminent siege of Jerusalem, and contrasting

eschatological promise (5: 1-5).

6 P. E. Botta, The Buried City of the East: Nineveh (London: Off. of the Nat. III.

Lib., 1851) 27.

CHARLES: PLUNDERING THE LION'S DEN                 185

 

the establishment of his rule, there is no mention in the OT of his

kingdom for another 1500 years.

The first allusion to Nineveh in a cuneiform text comes from the

twenty-first century B.C.,7 from whence is found the etching of a fish

in the middle of a city drawn in the form of an ideogram. The fish

emblem was that of the goddess Nina.8 From the time of the kings of

Akkad (2500-2300 B.C.), however, Nineveh was consecrated primarily

to Istar, goddess of love and war, to whom the oldest temple in

Nineveh, the war-temple, was dedicated. It is significant that we find

in Nahum 3 the blending of both "harlot" (vv 4-6)9 and "war" (vv 1-3)

imagery.

Many of the reliefs found in the royal palace of Nineveh make

boast of the pride of Assyria: hunting and warfare.10 It was customary

for the king to take part in lion-hunts,11 since such provided the best

training for the battlefield.12 Because the Assyrians never lacked for

warfare,13 it is thus fitting that the imagery of roaring, devouring

lions--used to depict Yahweh in chap. 1 and to taunt the Assyrians in

chap. 2--is exploited in the Nahum prophecy. Here one encounters

vivid representation of the Assyrian war-machine. Isaiah, a contempo-

rary to Sargon II, described the advance of the Assyrian juggernaut:

Their roaring is like that of a lion,

They roar like young lions;

They growl upon seizing their prey

And carry it off where none can rescue.

(Isa 5:29)

Throughout the book of Nahum "Assyrian propaganda”14 is

being utilized, much of which is found in Isaianic traditions one

hundred years earlier. But whereas Isaiah portrayed the awesomeness

 

7 A. Parrot, Nineveh and the Old Testament (London: SCM, 1955) 24.

8 Note the connection between another prophet addressing Nineveh and a fish:

Jonah.

9 References will follow the Hebrew Bible.

10 A bounty of information is available due to Assyrian reliefs, most of which

graphically depict facets of Assyrian warfare. Particularly useful is Y. Yadin's The Art

of Warfare in Biblical Lands (2 vols.; New York-Toronto-London: McGraw-Hill,

1963), esp. 2.291-314 with corresponding illustrations.

11 Cf. M. Wolff and D. Opitz, "Jagdpferde in der altorientalischen und klassischen

Kunst," AfO 10 (1936) 317-58, esp. 328-30. In Nineveh's imperial palace, two winged

lion sculptures and eight reliefs were found which showed the king chasing a wild bull

and a lion (see Botta, Nineveh, p. 120).

12 Parrot, Nineveh, 72.

13 A. Parrot (Nineveh, p. 72) described peace to the Assyrians as that "unstable

armistice" which was made to be broken. It was of little use.

14 S. P. Machinist, "Assyria and Its Image in the First Isaiah," JAOS 103 (1983)

736.

186                             GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

 

of Assyria in the height of its military ventures, Nahum announces

that the northern power is to be felled, and this by the Lord of Hosts

Himself: "'I am against you,' says the Lord of Hosts" (2:14 and 3:5).

Using theophany at the outset of his prophetic outcry, Nahum is not

disposed to depict a mere random demonstration of Yahweh's might.

Rather, the "burden" (xW.Ama)15 which he is carrying (1:1) is focused on

revealing the divine purpose:16 the anger and fury of the Lord of

Hosts is directed toward judgment. For,

The Lord God has spoken; who can but prophesy?"17

Who can withstand His indignation?

Who can endure His fierce anger?

His fury is poured out like fire,

The rocks are shattered before Him.18

 

Following the opening hymn of theophany,19 the divine purpose

unfolds: the yoke of the Assyrian oppressor is to be broken (1:13).

The unit 2:3-11 serves graphically and dramatically to give reassur-

ance that the affliction spoken of in 1:12 would cease and good news

(1:15) would be published. The prophet in essence is declaring: "Now

this is how catastrophe will strike Assyria. . ."

 

POETIC AND GENRE ANALYSIS OF 2:3-11

 

Nah 2:3-11 has been classified in literary type as a "vision-

oracle" or "vision-report.”20 M. Sister,21 F. Horst,22 and B. O. Long23

all build on Hermann Gunkel's distinction made earlier this century

between NOzhE ("vision") and rbaDA ("word" or "hearing"). That is, the

prophet is not merely a messenger of Yahweh (and hence, the rbaDA).

He also reports what he has seen (NOzhE). The nature of the content

found in the vision-report could encompass a threat, a promise, a

 

15 The term is derived from xWn, "lift up" or "bear," hence a "load" (H. S. Gehman,

"The 'Burden' of the Prophets," JQR 31 [1940] 109).

16 H. Schulz, Das Buch Nahum (BZAW 129; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1973) 74-75.

17 Amos 3:8; cf. 1:2.

18 Nah 1:6.

19 For further discussion of the theophanic hymn, see Schulz, Nahum, pp. 74-

75. See also J. Jeremias, Theophanie. Geschichte einer alttestamentlichen Gattung

(Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1965).

20 S. M. Sister, "Die Typen der prophetischen Visionen in der Bibel." MGWJ 78

(1934) 399-430. Others following suit are A. S. van der Woude (Jona, Nahum [Amster-

dam: Nijkerk, 1978] 97), R. F. Ungem-Sternberg and H. Lamparter (Der Tag des

Gerichtes Gottes [Stuttgart: Calwer, 1975] 216-17), and W. Rudolph (Micha-Nahum-

Habakkuk-Zephanja [Gutersloh: Mohn, 1975] 170).

21"Typen," 399-430.

22 "Die Visionsschilderungen der Propheten," EvTh 20 (1960) 193-205.

23 "Reports of Visions among the Prophets," JBL 95 (1976) 353-65.

CHARLES: PLUNDERING THE LION'S DEN                 187

 

rebuke, a word of consolation, a judgment-speech, or a call to listen.

Horst describes the vision-report as the announcement of the intrinsic

out-working of Yahweh's purpose as perceived by the prophet,24

whereby image and word are closely linked.25 Such a definition would

indeed fit Nahum's oracle.

The language and style of the vision are living and dramatic, full

of intensity and force. Scene upon scene storms upon the reader's

mind, with an acceleration throughout the book reaching a near-fever

pitch. In effect, the audience finds itself amidst the destruction and

ruin, feeling the full impact with the inner eye. Apocalyptic in char-

acter, the vision-report depicts Yahweh's hand behind all The audi-

ence is enveloped in the sobering awareness of divine retribution.

The prophet is a genuine literary artist. Included in the variety of

his literary modes are a hymn (1:2-9), a threat (1:10-14 and 3:8-17),

a salvation-oracle (I: 12-2:3), a vision-report (2:4-10), a taunt (2:11

and 3:7-10), a woe-oracle (3:1-3) and a rhetorical accusation (3:19).

Specifically in 2:3-11, he utilizes four particular devices: sound-play,

irony, repetition and striking imagery. The latter is perhaps most

evident, engulfing the whole of the vision-report and playing upon

several of Nineveh's cherished symbols: war-materials (vv 4-5), water

deluge (vv 7-8), the palace (v 7), the temple cult of Istar (v 8),

military plunder and the taking of spoils (v 10), and helpless reaction

to siege and fall (v 1 I). In examining the vision-report, one cannot

help but be struck by the abundance of parallel or contrasting images:

 

2:3 Jacob // Israel

"restoring" vs. "wasting" and "ruining"

2:4 "shield" // "chariots" // "spears"

"reddening" // "making scarlet"

"covering" // "array"

2:5 "raging" // "reverberating"

"torches" // "lightning"

2:6 nobles of the past vs. stumbling of the present

"stumbling" vs. "dashing"

2:7 "sluice-gates" opening // palace dissolving

 

24 While the task of the prophet was to "forth-tell" the hrhy rbaD; it is erroneous to

extract the prophetic-predictive element from the context of his utterances, as is so

often the case among modern readers. Indeed Nahum is affirming the sovereignty of

Yahweh and triumph in history, yet it is significantly before (note the pro-in

profh<thj), not after, the event (contra A. S. van der Woude, "The Book of Nahum: A

Letter Written in Exile," OTS [1977] 108-26). Furthermore, Judah is still afflicted

(1:12-13) and feasts are not yet being celebrated (2:1).

25 Horst, "Visionsschilderungen," 193-205.

188                 GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

 

2:8 the city's "queen”26 // "her maidens"

moaning // "beating the breasts"

2:9 "pool of waters" // "its waters"

two cries vs. no one looking

2: 10 silver // gold

silver and gold // "store"

"precious things" // "glory" or "wealth"

2: 11 "pillaged" // "plundered" // "stripped"

"melting heart" // "buckling knees"

"trembling bodies" // "paling faces"

 

2:3-11 AS A UNIT

The vision-report contained in 2:3-11 follows an oracle to Judah

in which comfort (1:12) and a loosening of the Assyrian yoke (1:13) are

promised. The prophet's message is emphatic: "Now I will break. . ."

Though Judah is at the time of the utterance still afflicted (1:12), the

tables are about to be turned. Yahweh will restore Israel, that is,

"Israel" of the monarchy (note the use of "Jacob" and "Israel" in 2:2),

to its prestige (2:3a). How is it, then, that the tables will be turned?

The prophet offers a vivid preview in the climactic vision-report of

2:3-11.

Following the dramatic fall of Nineveh is a taunt of the Assyrian

"lion" in 2:12-13. How is it, voices the prophet, that the "plunderer"

has become the "plundered"?! The first of two divine affirmations

then ensues: "'I am against you,' says the Lord of Hosts" (2:14).27 In

order to view 2:3-11 in the context of the whole prophecy, we would

suggest the following structure for the book as a whole:28

 

1: 1                 Introduction

  :2-10             Hymn of Theophany: the Lord Comes in Judgment

  :12-2:2         Oracle of Hope to Judah

2:3a                 Transition: the Announcement

  :3b-11           Vision- Report: the Plunder of Nineveh

  : 12-13         Taunt: Where are the Lions?

  :14                Threat: Promised Destruction

3:1-3               Judgment Speech: Woe to the War-Goddess

  :4-6               Judgment Speech: Woe to the Love-Goddess

  :7                   Taunt: Nineveh Laid Waste if

  :8-10             Taunt: Nineveh's Antecedent

 

26 One's rendering of 2:8 pending. See pp. 8-9.

27 Also in 3:5.

28 For a helpful discussion on the structure of Nahum, see W. Staerk, Das ossyrische

Weltreich im Urteil der Propheten (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1908) 177-79.

 

CHARLES: PLUNDERING THE LION'S DEN                 189

 

  : 11-18         Threat: Nineveh's Sealed Fate

  : 19               Taunt/ Accusation: Final Word on Assyria's Cruelty

 

COMMENTARY

2:3

As in the closing question of 3:19, 2:3 employs an emphatic

clause29 to introduce the vision-report: "Indeed the Lord is restoring

the splendor of Jacob . . ." The Hebrew particle yKi ("for," "indeed")

underscores the divine purpose behind Nineveh's destruction: the

restorative work of Yahweh. Verse 3 is emphatic ("even the glory of

Israel") and transitional. Since in 1:2-13 it was announced that

Yahweh would storm the enemy's citadel, 2:2 serves as a call to

watch, to man the ramparts. It is to the Ninevites that the commands

"climb the ramparts," "keep watch" and "keep guard" are spoken. In

Assyrian reliefs, the ramparts are always manned.30 However, in 2:1,

the roles are reversed. The inhabitants of Nineveh are the ones being

besieged. It is they who will need to deal with the assault. The

reversal is demonstrated in 2:3b. Those normally "devastating" (qqaBA),

the Assynans, are now on the receiving end: "the devastators are

being devastated.”31

Verse 3 shows that Yahweh works within history.32 His work is

one of "restonng" (bUw), as in Ps 126:1: "When the Lord restored the

fortunes of Zion, we were like those who dream" (RSV). In Nahum,

Yahweh is restoring Jacob's/Israel's former "prestige" or "pride"

(NOxGA). In Isa 14:11, NOxGA is the "pomp" of the king of Babylon which is

to be cast down. In Isa 23:9, it is the "pride" of Tyre which the Lord

of Hosts would stain. Similarly, in Jer 13:9, Yahweh declares that He

would mar the "pride" of Judah and Jerusalem. And in Amos 6:8, it

is the "pride" of Jacob which the Lord abhors. Here, however, the

NOxGA is being restored, insofar as the Assyrian yoke is to be loosened.

 

29 Of the six yKi-clauses in Nahum (1:10, 1:13,2:1; twice in 2:3, 3:19), three function

to give accent: 1:13, 2:3 and 3:19. Cf. K. Cathcart, "More Philological Studies in

Nahum," JNWSL 7 (1979) 6.

30 Parrot, Nineveh, 82.

31 See J. Halevy,"Le Livre de Nahum," RevSem 13 (1905) 107.

32 C. A. Keller, "Die theologische Bewiiltigung der geschichtlichen Wirklichkeit in

der Prophetie Nahums," VT 22 (1972) 411, is of the opinion that Nahum alludes to

few--if any--specific facts regarding history. Contrarily, we would argue that Nahum

is quite accurate in depicting specifics of Nineveh's ruin. Keller seems to blithely

disregard what has been commonly known regarding Nineveh's destruction. See, for

example, A. Parrot (cf. n. 7) and P. E. Botta (cf. n. 6). Also, A. H. Layard, Nineveh

and Its Remains (2 vols.; New York: Putnam, 1849), and C. J. Gadd, "The Fall of

Nineveh," Proceedings of the British Academy 1921-1923 (London: Oxford U., 1923)

475- 76. In truth, the accuracy of the prophet is astounding.

190                 GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

 

The tone of 2:3 is not so much "restorative" in an exilic sense,33 as it

is firstly in an imminent sense (release from dreaded Assyrian domi-

nation in the late seventh century B.C.). And yet, the restoration of

Jacob, even Israel" hints at a further level of "reorganization," one

which will be reminiscent of the former monarchy. Cathcart34 cor-

rectly notes that the phrase "like the splendor of Israel" is not super-

fluous;35 rather, it reinforces the ideal notion of Israel. Interestingly,

the metaphor of "wasted vines" present in v 3 also appears in Hos

10:1, in which context Israel had been tried and found lacking.

 

2:4

With almost apocalyptic fervor, Nahum describes the array of

war-materials "in the day of preparation." The shields of the warriors

are "made red" (MdexA) and the valiant men are "in scarlet" (flaTA).36 The

imagery derived from the red color is fantastic and fear-evoking.37

Some would corroborate Ezek 23:6 and 14 (reference to the Assyrian

violet) with the notion that red was the color of the Babylonian and

Median armies,38 and thus, Nahum is seeing their approach.39 As

to the "reddened shields," several explanations have been advanced:

(1) a dying or treating of the leather, as in 2 Sam 1:21 and Isa 21:5,40

(2) the reflection of the sun against copper, as in 1 Macc 6:39,41 (3) the

color of victorious might,42 and (4) blood dripping.43 Since the con-

text still entails "preparation," (OnykihE MOyB;), the latter explanation

would be insufficient. However, to be conclusive on the "reddening" is

 

33 Contra van der Woude, "Letter," 108-26.

34 "More Studies," 6.

35 Contra van der Woude ("Letter," 118) who dates Nahum during the exile.

36 Interestingly, both Mdexa and flaTA appear together in Isa 1:18 where they relate to

Israel's sins.

37 Consider the red appearance of the apocalyptic horseman in Rev 6:4 and the

dragon of red in Rev 12:3.

38 Gadd ("Fall," 475) notes that a combined assault of Babylonians, Medes and

Scythians resulted in Nineveh's sack in 612, though supposedly scattered attacks on the

city had been made for three years prior.

39 See for example, P. Billerbeck and A. Jeremias, "Der Untergang Ninevehs und

die Weiss agung des Nahum von Elkosch," BA 3 (1898) 97, and E. Sellin, Das Zwolf-

prophetenbuch (2 vols.; Leipzig: Deichert, 1930),2.367.

40 J. H. Eaton, Obadiah, Nahum, Habakkuk and Zephaniah (London: SCM, 1961)

65, and earlier, B. Duhm, "Anmerkungen zu den zwolf Propheten," ZAW 31 (1911)

103.

41 A. B. Davidson and C. O. Lanchester, The Books of Nahum, Habakkuk and

Zephaniah (Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1920)26.

42 von Ungern-Sternberg, Der Tag, 228.

43 J. M. P. Smith, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Micah, Zephaniah,

Nahum, Habakkuk, Obadiah and Joel (Edinburgh: Clark, rep. 1974) 312.

CHARLES: PLUNDERING THE LION'S DEN     191

 

impossible. The NgemA was a smaller shield, probably made of leather

and coated with grease.44

Many interesting explanations for the tOdlAP;-wxeB; have been

offered in the history of the text. A. Haldar considered this hapax

legomenon to be enigmatic ("perhaps an epithet for fire").45 Some

consider it to have been a metal instrument of some type.46 A. Bil-

lerbeck and A. Jeremias,47 having earlier construed it to be a technical

military term, would seem to be most accurate. In describing the

reliefs found among the remains of Nineveh, A. H. Layard48 pointed

to the grandeur with which even the horses pulling the Assyrian

chariots (cf. vv 4 and 5) were clad. Embroidered cloths were fre-

quently draped over the backs of the steeds.49 Ezekiel seems to have

this very thing in view when he states "Dedan was your merchant in

elegant saddle blankets" (27:19). The "horses" or "chariots" or "char-

gers"50 flashing as fire would evoke a fearsome image, just as the bk,r,

of Hab 1:8:51

Their horses are swifter than leopards,

Fiercer than wolves at dusk.

Their cavalry gallops headlong;

Their horsemen come from afar. . . 52

Moreover, the "cover" draped over the horses leading the war-chariots

could have furnished a third "red" object, along with the shield and

uniform. Indeed, "flashing as fire" would be a fitting description.53

The "spears quivering" (UlfAr;hA Mywirb;ha) were the spears (similar to

the Akkadian "staff," parussu)54 of the cavalry (the second fighting

 

44 T. K. Cheyne ("Influence on Assyria in Unexpected P1aces," JBL 17 [1898] 106)

devised a more fanciful emendation and rendering of v 4: "The warriors gird on their

tunics, and the fighting men put on their shoes."

45 A. Haldar, Studies in the Book of Nahum (Uppsala: Lundquist, 1947) 44.

46 E.g., Davidson (Books, 26), Smith (Commentary, 314) and Rudolph (Micha-

Nahum, 165).

47 "Untergang," 97.

48 Nineveh and Its Remains (2 vols.; New York: Putnam, 1849) 2.272-74.

49 Cheyne, "Influence,"pp. 106-7, saw this as a harness or decoration for the horse.

Further, M. Dietrich and O. Loretz, "Zur ugaritischen Lexicographie," BO 25 (1968)

100-101, argue that "wool" or "linen," not steel, appears to be the constitution of

trodlAP;. See also C. H. Gordon, Ugaritic Textbook (AnOr 38; Rome: Pontifical Biblical

Institute, 1965) 2045.

50 S. Davidson, Books, p. 27.

51 A common practice was to use males for war-horses, whose excitement over

mares was exploited. See M. Pope, "A Mare in Pharaoh's Chariotry," BASOR 200

(1970) 60.

52 Habakkuk's "burden" is similar: vengeance and judgment.

53 Cf. Rev 9: 17 with its comparable apocalyptic imagery.

54 T. H. Gaster, "Two Notes on Nahum," JBL 63 (1944) 52.

192                 GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

 

unit), whose shafts were made of wood,55 and not those of the foot-

soldiers, who, serving as shock troops, were decisive in assaulting the

fortified walls.56

 

2:5

The chariots "rage" in the streets and they "reverberate as thun-

der”57 in the squares. Nahum is using vivid imagery to heighten the

effect of the vision-report. Note how effective the "echo" notion is in

the "broad ways" or "squares.”58 The "streets" would most likely be

in the suburban areas.59 Significantly, Assyria's foremost military

weapon, the chariot corps, was comprised of highly developed chariots

drawn by a team of three horses with a two- or three-man crew.6o The

raging back and forth of enemy chariots within the city would indi-

cate, at any rate, that the double fortifications of the Assyrian capital

were of no avail.61

In 2:5b, the prophet further depicts the mad fury of the invading

chariots storming through Nineveh as blazing torches, flashes of

lightning. C. H. Gordon62 maintains dyPilA ("torch") to be a non-

Semitic loan-word and suggests that new kinds of torches and lamps

were introduced by the technically superior Philistines. S. Segert63

looks for the Akkadian equivalent in the Mari texts.

The following rendering then of v 5 would relate the climactic

level of intensity which has been building in 2:3-11 thus far:

In the streets the chariots are madly raging;

They reverberate in the open squares,

Their appearance being like torches

That give flashes of lightning.

2:6

In v 6, we incur a stroke of irony as Nahum alludes to past!

Assyrian military splendor which is contrasted with the present de-

 

55 Cf. Gordon, UT, p. 603, where Baal's spear is called a "tree of lightning."

56 Yadin, Warfare, 291.

57 J. Reider, "Studies in Hebrew Roots and Their Etymology," AJSL 34 (1917) 68.

58 Cathcart (Nahum, 90) notes that it is in the squares that people will be yelling ,

(cf. v 9:  Udm;fE Udm;fi).

59 S. Billerbeck and Jeremias, "Untergang," p. 100.

60 Yadin, Warfare, 297-98. The third horse served as a replacement (by the time of

Sargon II, some chariots even utilized a team of four horses). Under Assurbanipal, the

chariot became most advanced, carrying a crew of four men-a driver, an archer, and

two shield-bearers.

61 See n. 71 on the somewhat exaggerated ancient descriptions of Nineveh's fortifi-

cations, which, to be sure, reflect superior defensive measures.

62 "Homer and the Bible," HUCA 26 (1955) 61.

63 "Zur Etymologie on Lappid 'Fackel,'" ZAW 74 (1962) 323.


CHARLES: PLUNDERING THE LION'S DEN                 193

 

bacle. Instead of exhibiting valor and courage as that of old ("he

recalls the nobles" of past military campaigns), they are now stumbling

in their own steps. Contra T. H. Gaster64 and K. Cathcart65 ("he

musters") as well as J. M. P. Smith66 ("he summons"), the context

seems to require a touch of irony-irony which provides the appro-

priate contrast to the "stumbling" or "staggering" (lwaBA). Here the

LXX, mnhsqh<sontai oi[ megista?nej au]tw?n ("they recall their great

men "), catches the correct sense, as does W. Rudolph:67 "He remem-

bers his men of pomp."

They "hasten" or "press" to the wall, that is, the fortress-wall,

not the wall of the temple (contra Eaton),68 for the process of the

siege is being intensified. Nineveh is now being stormed from the

outside and its walls cannot withhold the flood of incoming assailants.

In Volume II of his Nineveh and Its Remains, A. H. Layard69 re-

hearses the procedure of how the city would have been stormed. The

first step was the use of the battering-ram. Isa 37:33, Jer 32:24 and

Ezek 17:13 mention the use of "banks," "forts'," "mounts" and

"towers." The Assyrian army utilized infantry, cavalry and chariot

corps. What distinguished Assyrian military prowess was its ability to

combine the storming of the ramparts, scaling of the city-walls,

tunneling, exploiting breaches in the walls and the use of psycho-

logical warfare against the enemy.70 Ezekiel's symbolizing of siege

upon Jerusalem is here worth comparison: "Lay siege against it; erect

a fort against it; build a ramp, set up camps against it and battering-

rams around it" (4:2).

Ladders were used against the gates of the city as well as to scale

the walls at vulnerable points. Soldiers would man the base of the

ladders to provide defense.71 "Preparing the cover" (j`kes.oha Nkahu) refers

to the mobile protective covers which were put up to shield the

assailants from stones, arrows, etc., being hurled from the wall.72

 

64 "Two Notes," 52.

65 More Studies, 6.

66 Commentary, 314.

67 Micha-Nahum, 168.

68 Obadiah, Nahum, 65.

69 pp.281-86.

70 See, for example, Yadin, in Warfare, pp. 318-23. In no other period, writes

Yadin, was warfare on fortified cities so highly developed as by the Assyrians (p. 313).

71 Xenophon, in Anabasis 3.4.7, parts of which are reproduced in P. Haupt,

"Xenophon's Account of the Fall of Nineveh," JAOS 28 (1907) 99-107, and Lucian

(cited in Layard, Nineveh, 2.128) seem to offer somewhat exaggerated accounts of

Nineveh's wall in depicting its ruins, claiming it to have been 100 feet high with a

thickness of twenty-five feet. Further, it was to have included 1500 towers (each of

which was 200 feet high), being constructed by a corvee of 1,400,000 men over a period

of eight years. Xenophon viewed the ruins some 200 years after the city's destruction.

72 Parrot, Nineveh, 82. When considering reliefs which depict the infantrymen who

are laying siege, one is immediately struck by the large top-curved shield of the

194                 GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

 

Further, battering-rams, which had appeared during the reign of

Assurbanipal,73 aided in storming the gates and walls. Soldiers operat-

ing them (the mechanism consisted of a wooden frame perched on a

chassis with six wheels)74 were covered on the sides by shields.75 This

scene, as depicted in v 6, is illustrated frequently on Ninevite reliefs.

 

2:7

There can be little doubt that the "gates of the rivers" (yrefEwa

tOrhAn.;ha) refer not to the gates to the city, rather to the "water- or

canal-gates.”76 Bordered on the west side by the Tigris, Nineveh was

also divided by a mountain stream running through the city and

surrounded by a moat which measured fifteen feet deep and one

hundred fifty feet wide.77 D. J. Wiseman78 offers the suggestion that

breaches in Nineveh's wall may well have been due to an unusually

high tide of the Tigris. P. E. Botta,79 one hundred years earlier, had

advanced a similar notion, maintaining that as much as twenty fur-

longs (roughly two-and-one-half miles) of wall may have been swept

away. Regardless of any speculation, the mention in 1:8 of an "over-

running flood"80 and "devastation," in addition to "pools of water"

and "fleeing" in 2:9, would indicate that here we are not merely

dealing with a literary metaphor, or with ancient Near East chaos-

symbolism,81 but rather a literal flooding of the canal-gates of the

Tigris. Xenophon82 and Diodorus Siculus83 each confirm the flooding

based on traditions they received.84

 

Assyrian soldier. It protects him from arrows being shot from the wall above (see

renderings in Y. Yadin, "The Earliest Representation of a Siege Scene and a 'Scythian

Bow' from Mari," IEJ 22 [1972] 93.

73 Yadin, Warfare, 314.

74 Ibid.

75 Ibid.

76 So P. Humbert, "La vision de Nahoum 2,4-11," AfO 5 (1928) 16; K. Cathcart,

Nahum, p. 95; ibid., More Studies, p. 7; and P. Machinist, "Assyria," 735.

77 Haupt, "Xenophon," 99.

78 Chronicles of Chaldean Kings (626-556 B.C.) in the British Museum (London:

British Museum, 1956) 17.

79 Buried City, 37.

80 See the discussion of "water" in the commentary on 2:9, p. 9. Cf. also R. Borger,

Die Inschriften Asarhaddons, Konigs von Assyrien (AfO Beih. 9; Graz: Im Selbstver-

lage des Ausgebers, 1958).

81 Contra J. D. W. Watts, The Books of Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk

and Zephaniah (Cambridge: Cambridge U., 1975) 113.

82 Anabasis 3.4.12.

83 Library 2.26-27.

84 From a clay prism of Sennacherib's time, Nineveh possesses fifteen gates on the

east side and five on the west or river-side (cf. Sellin, Zwolfprophetenbuch, 2.368).


CHARLES: PLUNDERING THE LION'S DEN                 195

 

A fitting contrast to the "flooding" of water in the city is Nahum's

image of the "palace melting" (gOmnA lkAyheha). The gutting of the city is

thorough. The royal palace (not Istar's temple),85 a work of lofty

magnificence, is dissolved in the midst of the catastrophe. It is interest-

ing that the palace was situated on the west side of the city, nearest

the river. Doubtless the prophet has the scenes which were etched on

the walls of the royal residence--a constant reminder of Assyria's

prowess in conquering--in mind as he reports the vision.

 

2:8

G. R. Driver86 responded in 1964 to the hilarity he found in

traditional commentary on Nah 2:8 concerning the cryptic bca.hu. Not a

few notions have been offered as to its correct interpretation.87 These

include (1) the Assyrian proper name Husabu,88 (2) the rabbinic view

that this is an inference to an unknown queen (queens were made to

"stand” [htAl.;Gu] at the right hand),89 (3) a transposing of the third word

htAlAfEho, re-pointing it so as to render it the Hebrew equivalent of the

Assyrian "queen" (etelletu),90 (4) a contracted form of hbAcefEhA, a

"female idol" (cf. Isa 48:5),91 (5) an emendation to read ybic.;ha ("the

beauty"),92 (6) agreement with the LXX reading h[ u[po<stasij while

citing the Akkadian gullatu ("column base"),93 (7) a cryptic name for

Nineveh,94 (8) a slur,95 and (9) the equivalent of the goddess Istar.96

As a suggested solution to this problem, we would cite several

factors without seeking radically to emend the MT: (1) the verb

"carry away" which is immediately following, (2) the practice of the

Assyrians after they have laid siege to a city, (3) the feminine endings

in v 8, (4) the custom of addressing a city by its queen,97 (5) the

 

85 Contra Eaton, Obadiah, Nahum, 65.

86 "Farewell to Queen Huzzab!" JTS 15 (1964) 296-98.

87 M. Breitenreicher (Nineve und Nahum [Munchen: Lentner, 1861] 71) counted at

least twenty different renderings.

88 Halevy, "Nahum," 112.

89 Driver, "Farewell," 296.

90 van der Woude, "Letter," 114.

91 J. Reider, "A New Ishtar Epithet in the Bible," JNES 8 (1949) 104-7.

92 Cathcart, More Studies, 7.

93 H. W. F. Saggs, "Nahum and the Fall of Nineveh," JTS 20 (1969) 220.

94 Davidson, Books, 30.

95 Haldar, Studies, 52.

96 A. Van Hoonacker, Les douze petits prophetes (Paris: Etudes bibliques, 1908)

438.

97 See, for example, A. Fitzgerald, "The Mythological Background for the Presen-

tation of Jerusalem as a Queen and False Worship as Adultery in the Old Testament,"

CBQ 34 (1972) 403-16. Fitzgerald (p. 405) notes that ancient capital cities were

virtually equated with their goddesses.

196                 GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

 

forceful role Istar played in Assyrian war, and therefore, in Assyria's

demise, and (6) the relationship between bc.hu and "her maidens”98

following. The "bemoaning of her”99 and "breast-beating" in 2:8b and

c appear as consequences of the "carrying away" in 2:8a. The visual

effect being generated here is one of strong irony. M. Delcor100 has

correctly noted the context in which 2:8 is found: ruin. While the

Istar symbolism is absent from Nahum 1, it surfaces in 2:8 and 3:4-6.

In texts stemming from the time of Assurbanipal, the patron-goddess

is frequently called "Istar of Nineveh, the heavenly queen."101

Once a siege had been successful, a common scene was to find

women appearing at the walls begging for mercy.102 Normal pro-

cedure was that an indiscriminate slaughter followed. Any women,

children or cattle remaining would be led away captive by the Assy-

rians on carts drawn by oxen. If indeed a "queen-type" is the focus of

2:8-and her cultic devotees are implied in the verse-then it is fitting

that the prophet would announce the breaking of the Assyrian back-

bone in such symbolic terms: "Istar of Nineveh, genius of war,103 that

"lady of Nineveh" and heavenly queen, is being hauled away captive

as the spoil of the Lord of Hosts!" We agree with L. Gry104 that, at

the very least, Istar should be in the background of the oracle depict-

ing Nineveh's demise. For she was "foremost among the gods," "mis-

tress of tumult," the one "who adorns battles.”105 Nahum would not

spare so strategic a motif!

 

2:9

Nineveh was "like a pool of water" (Myma-tkareb;ki), strong and

resourceful, through her whole history,106 indeed, from the begin-

 

98 In a Hurrian hymn dedicated to Istar, praise is offered twice to her attendants

(for a translation of the hymn, see H. G. Guterbock, "A Hurro-Hittite Hymn to Istar,"

JAOS 103 [1983] 155-58.

99 On "moaning," see Ezek 7:16. On doves and mourning, see Isa 59:11.

100 "Allusions a la deesee Istar in Nahum 2,81" Bib 58 (1977) 72-73.

101 In his Annals, Assurbanipal will use this designation twelve times in ten columns

(Stele Rm 1). The text is reproduced in Smith, Keilschrifttexte, 1.3-83.

102 Layard, Nineveh, 1.286.

            103 One might indeed argue, as M. Weippert (" 'Heiliger Krieg' in Israel und As-

syrien," ZAW 84 [1972] 460-93), that Assyria practiced its own form of "holy war."

Consider an excerpt from an Esarhaddon text: "I, Esarhaddon, . . . in trusting the great

gods, my lords, did not turn my back in the midst of battle. . . As a lion I waxed

furious. . . To the gods Assur. . . to Istar of Nineveh I lifted my hands. With their

dependable word they sent me . . .: 'Go! Do not hold back! At your side we go and

slay your enemies.'. . . Quickly I marched on the way back to Nineveh. . . Istar, the

lord of war and battle. . . stood at my side and loosed their battleplan, so that they all

cried, 'This is our war!'" (cited from R. Borger, Asarhaddons, 43f.).

104 "Un Episode des Derniers Jours de Nineve (Nahum ii,8)," RB 7 (1910) 402.

105 From a text of Tiglath-Pileser I (see Grayson, Inscriptions, p. 52).

106 Cf. Jonah 1:2 and 4:11.

CHARLES: PLUNDERING THE LION'S DEN                 197

 

ning.107 Her strength, however, in v 9, is not merely "receding";108 it is

vanishing cataclysmically, "fleeing" (sn). The prophet's depiction here

is reminiscent of an image commonly found in Assyrian texts: the

king advancing into battle is likened to raging water,109 symbolic of

terrifying destruction. In sharp contrast to her proverbial invincibility,

enterprising spirit, and aggression, Nineveh is suddenly robbed and

impotent. In the prophetic eye, it is Yahweh, the ruler of the nations

and divine warrior, who manifests Himself as an overwhelming flood

(1:8). Nineveh's strength is no more. Verse 9 resembles very much a

battle description found in Jeremiah:

 

What do I see?

They are terrified,

They are retreating,

Their warriors are defeated.

They flee (sn) in haste without looking back

And there is terror on every side.

(46:5)

In spite of man's cry to "Stay!" (UdmofE, Udm;fi), Nineveh's resources

(note the emphatic pronoun xyhi: "the waters of her") are vanishing.

In contradistinction to the inundation coming from without, her

strength is vanquished within. Nahum compares the unstoppable

stormers with the unstable fleers.

 

2:10

Verse 10 rushes toward fulfillment of Nahum's opening proclama-

tion: "The Lord takes vengeance. . . The Lord takes vengeance. . ."

(1:2). The exhortation is now to plunder. The treasures which were

brought home by Assurbanipal's army from Thebes alone were fabu-

lous.110 The testimony of the Assyrian kings which became ritual was:

 

I scattered, I stormed and conquered the town. . . I carried away

booty."111

I marched. . . , destroying, tearing down and burning. . . , carrying

booty away from them which was beyond counting.112

 

Of the tribute one king paid to Sennacherib, the king wrote:

 

l07 Cf. Gen 10:9-12.

108 Contra Haldar, Studies, p. 55.

109 See Machinist, "Assyria," 726-27. Cf. also Jer 47:2 and Dan 11:10, 40.

110 See, for example, pp. 5-6 in Smith, Keilschriften.

111 J. B. Pritchard, ed., The Ancient Near East (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Uni-

versity, 1958) 189.

112 Ibid., 191.

198                 GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

 

. . . thirty talents of gold, eight hundred talents of silver, precious

stones, antimony, large cuts of red stone, couches (inlaid) with ivory,

nimedu-chairs (inlaid) with ivory, elephant hides, ebony-wood, box-

wood (and) all kinds of valuable treasures, his (own) daughters, con-

cubines, male and female musicians.113

 

To be sure, after several hundred years of military conquest in

which spoils were continuously hauled back home, Nineveh must

have been a store for incomparable wealth. Thus, Nahum's prophetic

call is to "plunder" (zzaBA used twice). Indeed, "the supply is endless."

 

2:11

In v 11 is contained a picture which D. Hillers114 would describe

as a "reaction to bad news," stated mildly! The reaction is a result of

being "pillaged," "plundered" and "stripped" (note the strong asso-

nance of the Hebrew verbs in v 11: hqAUB, hq.AUbm; and hqAl.Abum;). People's

knees are knocking, hearts have melted, faces wax pale, literally

"withdrawing their color" (rUrxpA UcB;qi Ml.Aku ynep;),115 and their loins are,

as it were, in travail. Similar descriptions are found elsewhere in the

prophetic corpus. Jeremiah asks sarcastically,

 

Then why do I see every strong man

With his hands on his stomach as a woman in labor?

And every face waxed pale?

(30:6)

And similarly, by Isaiah:

 

. . . every hand will go limp,

Every man's heart will melt.

Terror will seize them.

Pain and anguish will grip them;

They will writhe in pain as a woman in labor.

They will look aghast at each other,

Their faces aflame.

(13:7-8)

Indeed, Nahum's depiction is a reaction to very bad news. Nine-

veh's hour has finally come.

 

113 Ibid., 200-202.

114"A Convention in Hebrew Literature: The Reaction to Bad News," ZAW 77

(1965) 86-90.

115 This very same expression is found in Joe1 2:6b.

CHARLES: PLUNDERING THE LION'S DEN     199

 

CONCLUSION:  THE “LION-HUNT”

 

With the use of utterly fantastic imagery and fiery zeal, the

prophet Nahum has pronounced a vision-oracle against Nineveh, the

Assyrian stronghold. As if standing in the royal palace himself and

gazing at the spectacular reliefs depicting the king of Assyria who

fears nothing as he hunts his lions and trains for war, the prophet

adds a taunting epilogue:

 

Where now is the lion's den,

The place where they fed their young,

Where the lion and lioness went,

And the cubs, with nothing to fear?

The lion killed enough for his cubs

And strangled the prey for his mate,

Filling his lairs with the kill

And his dens with the prey.

(2:12-13)

 

It is the Lord of Hosts Who promises to combat the lion-king of

Nineveh. The stalker of prey, in the prophetic vision-report, has

become stalked by Yahweh. True irony is at work. In 2:12, Nahum

remembers one more time the insatiable craving of the Assyrians for

plunder, before announcing that tOxbAc; hvhy, would cut off His prey

from the earth (2:14).116

The lion-imagery employed by the prophet is crucial, for it

represents the self-asserting autonomy with which one acts. Of the

fearsome northern empire it has been stated:

 

. . . the terrifying mask that was deliberately turned toward the outside

world was undeniably effective. The Old Testament reflects in numerous

poignant passages the fear inspired by Assyrian military might and by

the ruthless aggressiveness directed against all those nations that found

themselves in the path of Assyrian expansion.117

 

However, the hunter had now become the hunted.

 

116 Yahweh's threat in v 14, "I will burn. . . the sword will devour. . . I will cut

off. . . ," may reflect, as K. Cathcart ("Treaty-Curses and the Book of Nahum," CBQ

35 [1973] 179-87) has suggested, the curse invoked on a party breaking an ancient

treaty.

117 H. D. Laswell et al., Propaganda and Communication in World History--I: The

Symbolic Instrument in Early Times (Honolulu: University of Hawaii, 1979) 133-34.

200                 GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

 

BIBLICAL-THEOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF NAH 2:3-11

 

Divine Kingship

The divine kingship of Yahweh is a central theme of the OT. He

rules over the chaos-waters, over the forces of nature, over all the

nations surrounding Israel. His kingship over the nations is particu-

larly prominent in the prophetic corpus, and especially so among the

eighth-century B.C. prophets.118 In Isaiah, the theme emerges chiefly

from a restorative point of view. Cyrus is hand-picked to carry out

the divine purpose (44:28). That Yahweh reigns is, in effect, Isaiah's

"gospel."

Nebuchadnezzar is called "the servant of Yahweh" by Jeremiah

(25:9 and 27:6). In principle, this designation extends to the pagan

rulers, even the likes of Sargon, Sennacherib and Assurbanipal. In

Daniel, Yahweh is expressly the One removing and promoting kings

(2:21-22). The book itself is an active commentary on such.

As for the Nahum prophecy, it is Assyria which--albeit involun-

tarily--must submit to the will and purpose of Yahweh, the Lord of

Hosts.

 

Divine Justice

Both Jonah and Nahum end with a question. Nineveh, the seat

of Istar, called "the great city" (Jonah 1:2 and 4:11), whose wicked-

ness had risen before the Lord (Jonah 1:2), had been extended mercy

some one hundred years prior to the Nahum prophecy. However, in

the end, her would was "grievous" and no "healing" was possible, so

widespread was her cruelty (Nah 3:19). Even the sins of the nations

do not escape divine wrath. Yahweh is the Supreme Avenger (Nah

1:2).119

 

Divine Warfare

Nahum's prophecy illustrates a significant motif: the divine "re-

versal" of events concerning Israel and the nations. From the period

of the conquest until the exile, Yahweh manifested Himself as the

"divine warrior." On one level, He fought for Israel against the

nations (in which category the Nahum oracle fits). When Israel had

breached covenant, however, Yahweh fought against His people.

Either way, the prophets were adamant that it was Yahweh Who was

doing the fighting.

 

118 For example, Nah 2:1 (1:15, Eng. Bib.) is reminiscent of Isa 52:7: "Behold, there

on the mountains, the feet of the one who brings good news, the one who proclaims

peace."

119 On the contrast of Nahum to Jonah, see T. F. Glasson, "The Final Question in

Nahum and Jonah," ExpTim 81 (1969) 54-55.

CHARLES: PLUNDERING THE LION'S DEN                 201

 

The exercise of divine warring in the OT is frequently termed the

"Day of Yahweh." Normally depicting calamity, upheaval and distress

transpiring at a particular juncture in Israel's history, the "Day of

Yahweh" involved Israel as well as the nations. And for Assyria, that

"day" was "now" (1:13).

 

 

This material is cited with gracious permission from:

            Grace Theological Seminary

            200 Seminary Dr.

            Winona Lake,  IN   46590

www.grace.edu

Please report any errors to Ted Hildebrandt at:  thildebrandt@gordon.edu