Grace Theological
Journal 5.2 (1984) 247-269
[Cited with permission
from Grace Theological Seminary;
digitally prepared for
use at Gordon and
RESTORATION AND ITS
BLESSINGS:
A THEOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
OF PSALMS 51 AND 32
JACK BARENTSEN
Psalms 51 and 32 arose out of the same historical
circumstances
but reflect a different
time of composition. Both psalms, however, are
highly structured; this
is indicated by various features such as paral-
lelism and chiasm, repetition of key terminology, and important
structural markers.
These point to a twofold division in each psalm.
The second division of
each psalm contains the main thrust in the
flow of thought, so that
renewal and praise (Psalm 51) and teaching
sinners God's ways (Psalm
32) are the prominent ideas.
This essay uses structural analysis as a tool for
contextual analy-
sis of the two psalms.
John Callow's A Semantic Structure Analysis
of
Second Thessalonians1 serves
as the model for the work under-
taken here. The advantage
of structural analysis is its assumption that
human thought is
organized; thus, an analysis of the structure of bib-
lical texts should prove very helpful as a tool for biblical
theology
(see appendix).
* * *
INTRODUCTION
Methodology
THE
task of combining exegesis and theology is one of the most
difficult
but also one of the most fruitful challenges in biblical
studies.
It requires the interpreter to make the detailed observations
resulting
from exegesis yield theological conclusions, while avoiding
the
proof-texting method typical of some systematic
theologies. I
have
therefore endeavored in this study to avoid details which would
distract
from the goal of contributing to a biblical theology of sin and
l Ed. by Michael F. Kopesec (Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1982).
248
GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL
man,
while elaborating on those details which support my reconstruc-
tion of the flow of thought in the psalms.
In order to avoid unnecessary
detail, a method of contextual
analysis
as developed by associates of Wycliffe Bible Translators will
be
used.2 Accordingly, the structure of the psalms is analyzed first.
The
results of this analysis are presented in an overview chart which
indicates
the relationships between the various constituents (that is,
divisions,
subdivisions, etc.) of the psalms.
After the structural analysis, the
flow of thought of the psalms is
surveyed
in order to arrive at an understanding of the meaning. How-
ever,
since it exceeds the boundaries of this study to delineate all the
evidence
for a proper understanding of the psalms, only evidence
relevant
to the biblical theological argument will be adduced. The
results
of this analysis of meaning are synthesized in a thematic out-
line. This outline contains
constituent titles, which identify the number
of
verses concerned, the type of unit these verses represent (division,
section,
paragraph cluster, paragraph, etc.; these units do not neces-
sarily conform to the more technical use in Callow's Second Thessa-
lonians, but rather serve here
as convenient labels for the hierarchy of
constituents),
and the role this constituent plays in the flow of
thought
of the psalms, indicated by the term "role." The outline also
describes
the contents of each constituent, the "constituent theme."
These
themes differ from common phrase outlines in that they repre-
sent
both in form and wording the content of the verses; that is, the
themes
will consist of full sentences of a grammatical structure analo-
gous to the verses represented. This will in turn
provide the appro-
priate basis for a theological analysis of the psalms.
Background of Psalms 51
and 32
These psalms have traditionally been
identified as two of the
seven
penitential psalms.3 The others are Psalms 6, 38, 102, 130,
and
143.
Of these, Psalm 51 is perhaps one of the finest examples of a
penitential
psalm, while Psalm 32, although more didactic, still fits
the
same mold.
Psalm 51, as shown by vv 1-2,4
concerns David's sin with
rebuked
by the prophet Nathan in the 12th chapter. Although these
titles
may not be original with the composition of the psalms, they at
least
represent an early tradition. Assuming an early date for the
2 See Callow, Second Thessalonians, 1-15.
3 Norman Snaith, The Seven
Psalms (London: Epworth, 1964) 9,
4 Throughout, the Hebrew
verse enumeration will be followed. Thus, the title will
include
vv 1-2, while the psalm itself starts with v 3 and runs through v 21.
BARENTSEN: PSALMS 51 AND
32 249
psalm
and Davidic authorship, there is no problem accepting the
accuracy
of the title.
Psalm 32 is also Davidic, but the
title does not include informa-
tion about the setting as does the title of Psalm
51. Most commenta-
tors associate this psalm with the same series of
events relating to
David's
sin. But there is a clear difference of style and mood between
the
two psalms. It seems that Psalm 51 represents the immediate out-
cry
of David after Nathan's rebuke, while Psalm 32 was composed
later
after more reflection on these experiences.
This connection can be substantiated
internally. In Ps 51:15,
David
vows to teach sinners God's ways upon being granted the res-
toration of the joy of his salvation. In Ps 32:8
David fulfills this vow
by
giving instruction in the way people should walk.5 Other observa-
tions also suggest this. Psalm 32 is more didactic,
with its well
thought-out
contrasts, while Psalm 51 seems more emotional. This
would
indicate that Psalm 32 was written after some reflection upon
the
event, while Psalm 51 mirrors David's turmoil in guilt. It is there-
fore
reasonable to believe that Psalm 51 is the earlier of the two
compositions.
On the other hand, it must be noted
that the emotional flavor of
Psalm
51 does not imply a lack of reflection. Dalglish, in
his monu-
mental
work on this psalm, has pointed out many parallels with
other
ancient Near Eastern literature, Egyptian as well as Sumero-
Akkadian.6
Thus, it may well be that Psalm 51 belongs in a category
of
highly structured literature apparently common throughout the
ancient
Near East; this kind of composition used certain traditional
expressions
to indicate submission to a superior and repentance on
the
part of a subordinate.
But if "the Hebrew psalms of
lamentation are indebted to the
Sumero-Accadian, they have in turn
contributed their own most de-
finitive creativity in their formulation."7
Thus, none of the theological
biases
of the ancient Mesopotamian religions need have influenced
Hebrew
common Psalmody. In addition, even if Psalm 51 follows a
traditional
pattern, that does not diminish the emotional value of the
poem.
Rather, it heightens the genius of the poet who was able to use
certain
set forms to convey such deep emotional struggles.
In this study, ancient Near Eastern
parallels will not be consid-
ered, not because they may not be valuable, but
because they are not
germane
to our topic.
5 See F. Delitzsch, Biblical
Commentary on the Psalms, vol. 1, trans. F. Bolton, in
Biblical Commentary on
the Old Testament
(reprint;
398.
6 Edward R. Dalglish, Psalm
Fifty-One in the Light of Ancient Near
ternism (Leiden:
E. J. Brill, 1962).
7 Ibid., 277.
250
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THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL
PSALM 51
Structural Analysis:
Divisions of the Psalm
Many expositors of Psalm 51 (as well as of many
other passages
in
Scripture) fail to account for the structure simply because they do
not
recognize it. For instance, Harrison8 states that rigid analysis of
the
psalm is difficult because of the emotional upheaval. "David inter-
mingled
and repeated the petitions which clamored for utterance." It
is
quite true that Psalm 51 is strongly emotional, but this does not
imply
that the psalm was "blurted out" as it came to David's mind.
Dalglish takes another approach. Analyzing the
literary features
of
Psalm 51 in the light of ancient Near Eastern parallels, he develops
a
strophic structure based on observations about meter, and on this
builds
an outline to describe the logical flow of thought in the psalm.9
Although
this approach has a certain validity, a more careful analysis
can
be done on the basis of the internal coherence of the text. First,
to
build an outline on strophic structure is somewhat hazardous
because
of the uncertainties about meter and strophes in Hebrew poe-
try.
Instead, an analysis of the parallelisms in the psalm is likely to
yield
more accurate results. Second, word repetition within the psalm
is
not accounted for in Dalglish's method. But
repetition of key terms,
coupled
with the use of structural markers such as "therefore,"
"since,"
"and,"
and so on, is one of the more obvious tools available to the
poet.
There is little doubt that there are three main
divisions in the
psalm.
Vv 1-2 are recognized as the title and setting, while vv 20-21
are
generally seen as material extraneous to the psalm proper. Some
even
go so far as to state that the last two verses are a later liturgical
addition;10
even if this is not true, it must be acknowledged that
vv
20-21 manifest a shift in thought from the body of the psalm,
vv
3-19.
The main body of the psalm rather easily falls
into two sections.
The
shift of terminology from one section to the other is the clearest
distinguishing
feature of the two sections. Vv 3-9 are primarily con-
cerned with sin, purity, and cleansing, while vv 12-19
are more
concerned
with restoration and renewal of heart and spirit, as the
following
list based on Auffret's analysis shows:11
8 E. F. Harrison, "A Study of Psalm
51," BSac
92 (1935) 29.
9 Dalglish, Psalm Fifty-One, 77-81.
l0 Ibid.,77.
11 Auffret,
"Note sur la Structure litteraire
de PS LI 1-19," VT 26 (1976)
145.
BARENTSEN: PSALMS 51 AND 32 251
VV
3-9 vv
12-19
fwp -- 3, 5 bl -- 12, 19
Nvf -- 4, 7 Hvr -- 12, 13, 14, 19
xFH -- 4, 5, 6, 7, 9 xrb -- 12
fr -- 6 wdH -- 12
sbk -- 4, 9 bvw -- 14, 15
rhF -- 4, 9
In addition to these differences in terminology,
note that vv 12-19
contain
another theme (not elaborated by Auffret). Nww (vv 10, 14)
and
HmW (v 10) speak of joy and
gladness; dml (v 15) and Nnr (v 16)
expand
the theme by turning joy into testimony; hlht and hpw (v 17)
further
the idea by turning to praise; and NypH and hcr (v 18) with the
negation
of hzb (v 19) show how these
things are desired by God.
This survey of terminology shows that the
movement of the psalm
is
from pardon of sin in vv 3-9 to the restoration of the heart in
vv
12-19.12 But the latter section also describes in considerable
detail
man's
reactions to God's restoration. The theme, then, may be more
appropriately
identified as praise resulting from God's restoration of
the
soul.
So far, vv 10-11 have not been considered. These
verses seem
out
of place, because v 10 already is concerned with joy, the theme of
vv
12-19, while v 11 still cries out for forgiveness, the theme of vv 3-
V
11 uses xFH and Nvf, as in vv 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, and the term hHm, also
found
in v 3; v 10 has Nww and hkz, found in vv 14 and 19 respec-
tively.13
It is therefore reasonable to identify vv 10-11 as the hinge of
the
psalm. The main sections of the central division are therefore 3-9,
11
and 10, 12-19.
Auffret has pointed out that
the unity of the first section is main-
tained by parallelisms between 3-4 and 8-9 on the one
hand, and
5-6a
and 6b-7 on the other. The relationship between vv 4 and 9 is
shown
by the use of the same words--sbk, xFH and rhF. The rela-
tionship between vv 3 and 8 is through similar
terms, dsH
of v 3 cor-
responding
with tmx in v 8, and MmHr in v 3 corresponding with hmkH
in
v 8.14 Thus the structure is parallel in an a-b-a-b pattern.
The internal structure of vv 5-7, however, is
not parallel, but
chiastic.
In vv 5 and 7 the first person singular is prominent in both
independent
pronouns and verbal forms, while in 6a-6b, the second
person
singular is more prominent (although one verb is still in first
12 Ibid.
13 Ibid., 145-46.
14 Ibid., 142.
252
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THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL
Constituent Organization
CHART I: Overview of
Psalm 51
person
by way of transition).15 The structure here is chiastic in an
a-b-b-a
pattern. A key to distinguishing the transition from vv 3-4 to
vv
5ff. is the use of yKi, which is often an
indicator of the transition
from
introduction to body. Here yKi answers the question
"Why?"--
that
is, why the forgiveness is necessary.16
The basis of unity in the second section is
similar. Vv 12 and 19
have
Hvr and bl, in common, while Hvr reoccurs in v 13, and v
18
introduces
Hbz, which also occurs in v
19. Thus, vv 12-13, 18-19
form
a unit and are arranged chiastically (a-b-b-a).
Vv 14 and 16a share YW', while v 15, with fwP and xFH, uses
antonyms
of qdc found in 16b, thus
showing a parallel arrangement
(a-b-b-a).17
These structures with their parallel and
chiastic patterns are
shown
in Chart I.
15 Ibid., 145.
16 Dalglish,
Psalm Fifty-One, 104.
17 Auffret,
"Note," 143-44.
BARENTSEN: PSALMS 51 AND 32 253
It is interesting to note the many synonymous
parallelisms in
Psalm
51, especially since this feature is different from Psalm 32,
where
most terminological relationships are contrastive. This survey
has
also shown that the psalm is highly structured, and consequently
that
there is no basis for the idea that because the psalm is emotional,
it
is unstructured. The task at hand is to show how the meaning is
packaged
within this structure.
Reconstruction of the
Meaning: The Unity of the Psalm
The main purpose of this part of the study is to
determine how
the
two main sections of the psalm (vv 3-9, 11 and 10, 12-19) relate
to
each other. But first the content of the sections needs to be
analyzed.
The
content of the two sections
The first section consists of three paragraph
clusters (vv 3-4,
5-
7, and 8-9). As is evident from the previous analysis paragraph
clusters
3-4 and 8-9 are parallel to each other. In order to establish
the
head (that is, main thought) of these verses, we need to discuss the
relationship
between 5-7 and 3-4, 8-9.
V 5 begins with yk, which indicates major
transition, as already
noted.
It makes a logical progression from the statement of vv 3-4 to
what
follows and seems to give the reason for the plea for forgive-
ness.18
Thus, vv 3-4, 8-9 seem to be the logical consequence of vv 5-
7.
The best way to reconstruct the flow of thought is that vv 3-4
introduce
the thesis statement, after which support for the statement
is
given in vv 5-7. Vv 8-9 the close with a recapitulation, or rather
amplification,
of the thesis statement, implementing some of the con-
cepts of vv 5-7. Therefore, the head of 3-9, 11 is vv
3-4.
This
is further substantiated by considering v 11, the verse which
together
with v 10 forms the hinge of the argument in the psalm. V 11
repeats
the main theme of vv 3-9 as shown in the structural analysis.
This
theme consists of a plea for forgiveness. Since v 11 is a transition
verse,
it may be thought of as a brief summary of the main theme of
vv
3-9 before the thought of the psalm progresses. Now, if v 11 puts
forth
a plea for forgiveness as the main theme, then the key to vv 3-9
must
be a statement or plea of the same content. Thus, it becomes
clear
that either the opening statement of vv 3-4 or its recapitulation
in
vv 8-9 contains the thesis of this section. This is why the outline
below
contains as the theme of the section vv 3-9, 11 the words
"Cleanse
me from my sin," and also includes in parentheses the rea-
son
for this plea, namely "for against you only I have sinned."
18 Dalglish, Psalm Fifty-One, 104; Delitzsch, Psalms,
2. 135.
254
GRACE
THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL
The
second section also consists of three paragraph clusters
(vv
12-13, 14-17, and 18-19) with the introductory paragraph of
v
10. As in the first section, if v 10 is a transition verse, we may
expect
an important clue from its content to the main emphasis of
this
section. This verse consists of a plea to God to cause the peti-
tioner to be glad and rejoice. Consequently, we should
find in vv 12-
19
a statement dealing with the concept of joy and gladness.
The statement about joy is found in v 14 and
again in vv l6b and
17.
Thus, it would appear that vv 14-17 constitute the main para-
graph
cluster within this section. This is especially revealing in light of
the
fact that most often v 12, "create in me a clean heart," is lifted
out
as
the most central thought of the psalm, while our analysis here
shows
that somehow this verse is subordinate to the concepts in
vv
14-17.
This analysis is also supported by another
occurrence of yk, this
time
in v 18. Again it seems to introduce a reason for the thesis
statement
just given, thereby subordinating vv 18-19 to vv 14-17.
And
since vv 18-19 are parallel with vv 12-13, it follows that the
latter
verses are essentially subordinate to vv 14-17 as well. Hence,
the
outline places the paragraph cluster of vv 14-17 as head of the
section
vv 10, 12-19.
The content of vv 14-17, however, needs to be
analyzed more
closely.
As already indicated, vv 14 and 16a seem to be related to
each
other. The same holds for vv 15 and 16b. However, v 17 remains
to
be discussed.
The progression of thought from vv 14 to 15,
repeated in vv 16a
to
16b, seems to be that God's restoration (or forgiveness) results in a
human
witness (or song). V 17, however, does not seem to have this
movement
from divine action to human response; instead, it ascribes
both
activities to God's working. God has to open the mouth (through
restoration
and forgiveness) so that he may be praised. It emphasizes
to
a greater degree the sovereignty of God. This in turn prepares the
way
for the theme of conformity to God's desires as presented in
vv
18-19 and also vv 20-21. This implies then, that v 17 is the key
portion
of vv 14-17, and thereby also of the whole section vv 10,
12-19.
So, the outline contains as the theme for this section the
words
"cause me to declare your praise" and adds in parentheses the
concepts
of vv 12-13 and 18-19, interpreted as means, "by creating in
me
a clean heart."
The contents of these two main sections may be
summarized as
follows.
A prayer for pardon, begun in vv 3-4 and finished in vv 8-9,
encloses
the reason for the need for pardon, namely, great sinfulness
as
confessed by David.19 From pardon, the psalm moves toward
19 See Auffret,
"Note," 143.
BARENTSEN: PSALMS 51 AND 32 255
restoration.
A prayer for restoration, begun in vv 12-13 and reformu-
lated in vv 18-19, forms the basis of (or even the
means of) a divinely
originated
desire to praise God.20
The
relationship between the two sections :
In order to identify the main thrust of the
psalm, it is necessary
to
establish the relationship between the two sections. Auffret
indi-
cates some of these relationships as follows. In
section one, we find
the
request for purification (vv 3-4, 8-9) but in section two a plea for
restoration
(vv 12-13): here the confession of sin (vv 5-6a, cf. v 7),
there
the witness to convert sinners (v 15); here a just sentence (v 6b),
there
a just salvation (v 16, cf. v 14a).21 Thus, Auffret
concludes that
the
first section is only a prelude to the second.22
But the relation needs to be more clearly
specified. V 12, with the
request
for restoration, is intimately bound up with the first section.
The
latter's emphasis on man's sinfulness from conception contrasted
with
God's desire for truth in the inner parts not only implies but
certainly
demands a request for inner restoration. In a sense, v 12 is
the
natural outgrowth of vv 3-9. However, on the basis of that resto-
ration,
the psalmist can vow to testify of God's grace. He knows that
if
God restores, he will be able to praise him. The relationship between
v
12 and v 17, then, seems to one of condition and consequence, v 12
being
the condition of v 17. This understanding is supported by the yk
which
begins in v 18, because it shows that the request for being made
to
praise God has its origin in one's spiritual condition. From a
human
standpoint one's spiritual condition is the logical condition for
being
able to praise God, while from the divine standpoint, this repre-
sents the means whereby God generates praise unto
himself. Either
way,
the emphasis is on the praise generated for God.
In summary, the relationship between the two
sections is that the
request
for pardon is the condition of (or possibly otherwise subordi-
nate to) the request to be caused to praise God.
Therefore, the theme
of
the outline for the division encompassing vv 3-19 is this idea:
"You
cause me to declare your praise."
A
note about vv 20-21
A few brief comments about vv 20-21 need to be
made. Several
commentators,
especially those who date this psalm around the period
of
the exile, regard these last verses as later, liturgical additions. The
reason
seems obvious, because the statement that God delights in
20 Ibid.,
144.
21 Ibid.,
145.
22 Ibid.
256
GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL
Thematic Outline of
Psalm 51 *
Psalm
51:1-21 (Psalm) [If you cleanse me from my sin (for against you only I have
sinned)],
[then
by creating in me a clean heart] you cause me to declare your praise.
Psalm Constituent 1-2 (Paragraph) (Role:
setting of 3-19) At the time when Nathan
convicted David of his sin with Bathsheba.
Psalm Constituent 3-19 (Division) (Role:
Body of the Psalm) [If you cleanse me
from my sin (for against you only I have
sinned)], [then by creating in me a clean
heart] you cause me to declare your praise.
Division
Constituent 3-9, 11 (Section) (Role: condition of 10, 12-19) Cleanse
me from my sin [for against you only I have
sinned].
Section Constituent 3-4 (Paragraph
Cluster) (Role: Head of 3-9, 11) Cleanse
me from
my sin.
Paragraph Cluster Constituent 3 (Paragraph) (Role:
topic orienter of
3-4) God, be gracious to
me in accordance with your lovingkindness.
Paragraph Cluster Constituent 4 (Paragraph) (Role:
Head of 3-4) Cleanse
me from my sin.
Section Constituent 5-7 (Paragraph
Cluster) (Role: reason for 3-4, 8-9)
Against
God only I have sinned.
Paragraph Cluster Constituent 5 (Paragraph) (Role:
specific of 6a) My
sin is always on my
mind.
Paragraph Cluster Constituent 6a (Paragraph) (Role:
Head of 5-7)
Against God only I have
sinned.
Paragraph Cluster Constituent 6b (Paragraph) (Role:
equivalent of 6a)
Your judgment is just.
Paragraph Cluster Constituent 7 (Paragraph) (Role:
amplification of 5) I
was sinful already at my
very origin.
Section Constituent 8-9 (Paragraph
Cluster) (Role: amplification of 3-4)
Forgive
me that I may be clean.
Paragraph Cluster Constituent 8 (Paragraph) (Role:
grounds of 9) You
want truth in my innermost being.
Paragraph Cluster Constituent 9 (Paragraph) (Role:
Head of 8-9) For-
give me that I may be
clean.
Section Constituent 11 (Paragraph)
(Role: equivalent of 3-4) Forgive me all
my sin.
Division
Constituent
10, 12-19 (Section) (Roles: consequence of 3-9, II; Head
of the Body) [By creating in me a clean heart]
cause me to declare your praise.
Section Constituent 10 (Paragraph)
(Role: preview of 12-19) Cause me to
rejoice.
*See
Callow, Second Thessalonians, p. 7.
His helpful "Chart of Relations Involving
Communication
Units" explains some of the terminology in this outline.
BARENTSEN: PSALMS 51 AND 32 257
Section Constituent 12-13 (Paragraph
Cluster) (Role: means of 14-17)
Create
in me a clean heart.
Paragraph Cluster Constituent 12 (Paragraph) (Role:
Head of 12-13)
Create in me a clean
heart.
Paragraph Cluster Constituent 13 (Paragraph) (Role:
contrast of 12) Do
not separate me from
your presence.
Section Constituent 14-17 (Paragraph
Cluster) (Roles: result of 12-13; head
of 10,
12-19) Cause me to declare your praise.
Paragraph Cluster Constituent 14 (Paragraph) (Role:
condition of 15,
16b) Restore to me the
joy of your salvation.
Paragraph Cluster Constituent 15 (Paragraph) (Role:
equivalent of 16b)
I will teach sinners
your ways.
Paragraph Cluster Constituent 16a (Paragraph) (Role:
manner of 12)
Deliver me from guilt.
Paragraph Cluster Constituent 16b (Paragraph) (Role:
consequence of
14) I will praise your
righteousness.
Paragraph Cluster Constituent 17 (Paragraph) (Roles:
summary of 14-16;
head of 14-17) Cause me
to declare your praise.
Section Constituent 18-19 (Paragraph
Cluster) (Role: amplification of 12-
13) You
desire a broken heart and a contrite spirit.
Paragraph Cluster Constituent 18 (Paragraph) (Role:
contrast of 19) You
do not delight in
sacrifice.
Paragraph Cluster Constituent 19 (Paragraph) (Role:
Head of 18-19)
You desire a broken
heart and a contrite spirit.
Psalm Constituent 20-21 (Paragraph
Cluster) (Role: closing of 3-19) If you do
good
to
Paragraph
Cluster Constituent 20 (Paragraph) (Role: condition of 21) Do good
to
Paragraph
Cluster Constituent 21 (Paragraph) (Role: consequence of 20) Delight
in righteous sacrifices.
sacrifices
seems to contradict directly v 18, which says that God does
not
delight in sacrifice.23
However, v 21 adds an important qualifier to
"sacrifice," namely
"righteous,"
implying that these are not empty rituals; they are per-
formed
with the right spiritual attitude. Note also that v 20 is an
appeal
to God's sovereign grace to show favor to his covenant people.
The
movement of thought is remarkably similar to the body of the
psalm.
There we saw an appeal to God's sovereign grace for pardon,
23 Dalglish, Psalm Fifty-One, 77, 194.
258
GRACE
THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL
on
which basis human praise could be offered to God. In vv 20-21 we
see
the same appeal on the basis of which (note the twice repeated zx
in
v 21) God may delight in the praises of men offered in the form of
sacrifices.
The main difference between vv 20-21 and the
body of Psalm 51
is
that they are spoken within a national context rather than a per-
sonal one. The relationship can be best understood in
light of the
ancient
Near. Eastern concept of kingship.24 The king, as a divinely
appointed
representative, was responsible not only for his own con-
duct
and well-being, but also for that of the whole nation. The con-
cepts of covenant and solidarity play an important
role. Thus, after
having
settled his personal relationship with God, it would be natural
for
the king to turn his concerns to his nation. In fact, when this
concept
is properly applied, it will be seen that the presence of vv 20-
21
may point to Davidic (because kingly) authorship, rather than late,
possibly
exilic editing of the psalm: priests or scribes concerned with
liturgy
would have little interest in adding a postscript with royal
implications.
Theological Analysis:
The Contents of the Psalm
One of the major ideas in the psalm is the
dependence of man on
God
who forgives and restores. This stands in stark contrast to the
greatness
of sin (vv 5-7).
The
greatness of sin
The movement of thought in w 5-7 begins with the
observation
that
man has sinned and that he is aware of it. Then the sin is put in
proper
perspective: it is primarily directed against God. Turning his
attention
to God, the writer states that God's judgment is just, while
in
contrast his own origins are in sin. Considering the contribution of
each
paragraph to the development of the thought is helpful.
V 5: The verse opens with the acknowledgment
that David knew
his
sin; thus, he exposes his guilty conscience.25 It follows that this
was
a living awareness of sin.26 The second half of the verse makes
this
clear: "before me" here has the connotation of "opposite me,
against
me," that is, confrontation.27 The mention of
"always" empha-
sizes
that sin is not temporary, but continual.28 Thus, David charac-
terizes himself as a person who sins and, by
extension, all of humanity
could
be characterized that way.
24 See J. H. Eaton, Kingship and the Psalms (SBT 2nd Series, 32;
Allenson, n.d.) esp.
72, 187.
25 Dalglish, Psalm Fifty-One, 104.
26 Delitzsch, Psalms, 2. 135.
27 Snaith, The Seven Psalms, 52.
28 Dalglish, Psalm Fifty-One, 105.
BARENTSEN: PSALMS 51 AND 32 259
V
6a: The prominence of "against you and you only" highlights
the
fact that all sin is directed against God. This may seem somewhat
strange
since David's sin with Bathsheba also involved the death of
her
husband Uriah; nevertheless, this statement is the
"only adequate
doctrine
of the final bearing of sin.29 All sin is against God.
V 6b: The word Nfml, which usually means
"in order that”30
indicating
aim or purpose is a problem here. Dalglish adds that
the
concern
here is not that David must acknowledge his sin so that God
might
remain righteous, as in a theodicy; instead he sees the phrase as
elliptical,
implying that when God judges, then he will be just. But the
argument
in either case is that sin, after it is identified as directed
against
God, now is contrasted with the nature of God.
V 7: This reflection upon God's nature turns the
psalmist to con-
sider his own nature; so he states that he was even
conceived in sin.
J.
K. Zink enumerates five different interpretations of this verse, but
at
least "the corporate solidarity and its propensity toward sin is
clearly
recognized.”31 The sinful origin of humanity after Adam is
in
view as the psalmist's statements transcend his personal realm.
Somehow,
"natural generation inevitably produces corrupt human
nature.”32
God's just nature and man's sinful origin are set in con-
trast. We have moved from man's and God's reaction to
sin in vv 5
and
6a to the underlying reason: God hates sin because he is just, and
man
sins because he is a sinner.
Thus, the key to an acknowledgment of sin is
first, the admission
that
sin is directed primarily against God, and second, that this enmity
has
its foundation in the opposite natures of God and man, which are
just
and sinful respectively.
Human
impotence
In the first section of the psalm the need for
forgiveness is shown
by
the exhibition of the greatness of man's sin. Thus, man is depen-
dent
on God for forgiveness as well as the subsequent restoration of
relationships.
This restoration deals first with the heart, both with
regard
to cleansing it (vv 12-13) and with regard to directing it toward
God's
desires, and second, with the praise that is due to God; having
cleansed
the heart, the soul can offer up praise to God.
Vv 3-4, 8-9: The plea for forgiveness is based
both on the recog-
nition of man's sin (vv 5-7) and on the fact that God
desires truth in
29
30 BDB, 775.
31 J. K. Zink, "Uncleanness and Sin: A
Study of Job XIV and Psalm LI 7," VT
17
(1967)
361.
32 John Murray, The Imputation of Adam’s Sin (
and
Reformed, 1959) 91.
260
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man
(v 8). The plea for forgiveness is so urgent that it is repeated in
v
11. The terminology used, such as cleansing with hyssop (v 9), has
ritual
overtones, but the main thrust of these verses is ethical. The key
observation
for our purposes is that the writer constantly appeals to
God's
grace. In v 3, the preposition -K; is twice repeated in
chiastic
structure
so that the focus is on divine grace.33 And it is according to
his
grace that forgiveness can be expected or requested. In other
words,
although the need for forgiveness is based on man's sinfulness,
the
granting of forgiveness is dependent on God's grace, not on how
much
man needs it. Thus God's sovereignty is emphasized in the way
he
grants forgiveness.
Vv 12-13, 18-19: The plea for a clean heart,
contrasted with a
request
not to be separated from God, again shows the need for
action
on God's part. The heart is one's innermost being. The verb
xrb, of which only God is
agent,34 shows the necessity of divine
action.
Says Calvin:
He does not merely assert that his heart and
spirit were weak, requiring
divine assistance, but that they must remain
destitute of all purity and
rectitude till these be communicated from above.35
It
may appear that v 19, with its emphasis on a broken and contrite
heart,
shows the possibility for human initiative. But note that 'con-
trite'
is translated from the same root as 'broken' in v 10; the concept
is
one of being bruised or crushed.36 Thus, both rbwn ('broken') and
hkdn
('contrite')
describe one suffering an action rather than acting;
both
are semantically passive concepts. Thus, being broken and being
bruised
is not a result of human initiative, but depends on divine
action;
it is God's task. David leaves no doubt that only by divine
initiative
can we possess a clean spirit.
Vv 14-17: As argued earlier, the request for a
clean spirit forms
the
basis for the request to have one's mouth opened to praise God.
One
must recognize that the restoration of the soul is not the final
goal.
It is absolutely necessary, but the final goal of restoration is to
restore
to God the praise that is his due. Thus, a request for forgive-
ness
and restoration must, according to biblical example, be followed
by
a request to have a tongue, lips, and mouth (vv 16b-17) to praise
God.
It is not human initiative that accomplishes God's praise; it is
God
who must open our mouths if we are to praise him.
33 Dalglish, Psalm Fifty-One, 84.
34 Henry C. Thiessen,
Lectures in Systematic Theology, rev.
by V. D. Doerksen
(Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979) 116, citing Davis, Paradise to Prison, 40-41.
35 John Calvin, Commentary on the Book of Psalms, trans. J. Anderson (reprint;
36
BARENTSEN: PSALMS 51 AND 32 261
In summary, the whole process of dealing with
sin, from forgive-
ness
through restoration to praise to God, is ultimately and utterly
dependent
on God. Man is completely impotent, or at least passive,
in
making any step toward restoring the relationship with God.
Effects
of Sin on Man
The three different words for sin vv 3-4, fwp, Nvf, and xFH, usu-
ally
have different nuances, but here in parallel they indicate the total-
rity of sin in which man is involved. Similarly, the
three different
words
used for forgiveness indicate the complete forgiveness requested.
Both
observations show that sin is not a superficial characteristic of
man
but rather goes to the core.
It is worth repeating that sin soils one's
conscience (v 5) and that
it
stains man from his very beginnings (v 7). Although v 10 does not
necessarily
imply physical effects of sin,37 it clearly shows that one's
emotional
state suffers from it.38 Even so, the psychomatic
effects of
sin
should not be ruled out. V 13 highlights how sin may affect one's
relationship
with God. Though never losing one's salvation,39 the fel-
lowship could be severed. God restores to us not
only the cleanness of
heart
but also the praises that are his due. This implies that sin has
dishonored
God in taking away praise from him.40 In fact, David's sin
with
Bathsheba had caused others to blaspheme God (2 Sam
The
sacrifices had apparently degenerated into empty ritual, which is
why
God would not be pleased with them. Still, they soothed many a
conscience,
thinking that this deed corrected one's standing before
God.
PSALM 32
As with Psalm 51, varying purposes have been
proposed for
Psalm
32. Drijvers holds that it is a psalm of
"thanksgiving for a cure
from
illness.”41 McConnell believes that David's purpose was "to
demonstrate
the importance of confession/forgiveness in one's rela-
tionship with Yahweh.”42 Craigie suggests various translations of the
term
lykWm: "to teach;
meditation; psalm of understanding; or skillful
37 Cf. Dalglish, Psalm Fifty-One, 145.
38 See Louis Berkhof,
Systematic Theology, 4th ed. (
1939,
reprinted 1981) 485.
39
40 Ibid.
41 Pius Drijvers,
The Psalms: Their Structure and Meaning
(
Herder,
1965) 146.
42 Oren G. McConnell, "An Exegetical
Study of Psalm 32," unpublished Th. M.
thesis
(Dallas Theological Seminary, 1974) 17.
262
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psalm.”43
He recognizes the presence of elements of thanksgiving as
well
as wisdom motifs, so he identifies it as a psalm of thanksgiving
with
literary adaptations to wisdom.44 Yet almost all suggestions lack
enough
information to be sure of the purpose of the psalm. Let us
consider
first the divisions of the psalm and then its unity.
Structural Analysis:
Divisions of the Psalm
Psalm
32, like Psalm 51, divides into two sections. Notice the
differences
in terminology: vv 1-5 contain words like fwp, NVf, xFH,
and
concepts like groaning, confessions, and misery; vv 6-11, on the
other
hand, deal with concepts like teaching, counseling, trust, rejoic-
ing, and praying.
In addition, v 6 starts with the strong logical
construct txz-lf,
"on
this account.”45 This certainly indicates major transition between
two
divisions, vv 1-5 and vv 6-11.
However, v 7 seems to upset this pattern. V 6
starts out clearly
with
the idea of exhortation in mind, but v 7 returns to the sphere of
a
relationship with God. In vv 1-5, the dialogue is carried on between
the
psalmist and God, and the same is true for v 7. But in vv 6-11,
with
the exception of v 7, the dialogue is not with God but rather
with
the reader. Thus it appears that v 7 belongs with vv 1-5 instead
of
with vv 6-11. Now we have the following divisions: vv 1-5, 7 and
vv
6, 8-11, a situation similar to Psalm 51. Vv 6 and 7 may thus be
transitional,
although the presence of the strong conjunction in v 6
suggests
that the verses may be more than just a transition.
The unity of the divisions can also be
demonstrated internally by
the
literary feature of inclusion. Both vv 1 and 5 contain fwp, xFH,
Nvf, and hsk.46 VV 6 and
10 both contain the words dsH and Mybr.47
V
7 is a transitional verse and contains the word bbs, which recurs in
v
10, although the general form of v 7 corresponds closer to vv 1-5.
Within the first division the movement of
thought is as follows.
Vv
1-2 represent an exclamation of blessing in the third person singu-
lar. This marks them off from vv 3f. which are
written in the first
person
singular. In addition, vv 3 and 4 start with the conjunction yKi,
which
indicates a transition. The yKi of v 3 may be
interpreted as a
time
indicator, "when,”48 rather than an expression of cause or
result.
But
the recurrence of the conjunction at the beginning of v 4 shows
43 P. C. Craigie,
Psalm 1-50 (Word Biblical Commentary,
19;
1983)
269.
44 Ibid., 265.
45 BDB, 262.
46 Craigie, Psalms 1-50, 285.
47 lbid.
48 BDB, 473.
BARENTSEN: PSALMS 51 AND 32 263
that
the relationship also has logical components. Thus, vv 1-2 appear
to
stand at the head of the first division.
The rest of the division, vv 3-5, 7, can be
subdivided into two
sections.
This is mainly done on the semantic level. There is a clear
contrast
between vv 3-4 and vv 5 and 7. Vv 3-4 mention concepts
like
silence, judgment, and misery, while vv 5 and 7 contain the
opposite
concepts, those of confession, forgiveness, and deliverance.
Thus,
the first division is made up of three sections: vv 1-2, 3-4, and
5
and 7.
The second division is structured differently. V
6 mentions the
theme
of deliverance and includes an exhortation to pray. Vv 8-11
also
contain an exhortation to turn to God and mention the benefits
thereof.
V 6, then, is the introduction to vv 8-11.
V 8 starts with the declaration that David will
teach sinners
about
the mercies of God. The rest of this section appears to be the
content
of the teaching. V 9 metaphorically warns those who do not
turn
to God; v 10 uses the format of a proverb to state the basic
principle
on which the exhortations are based; and v 11 repeats the
principles
of v 9 in a positive manner. Thus, this second division is
structured
around David's desire to teach others about God's for-
giveness.
Psalm 32, then, much like Psalm 51, turns out to
be highly struc-
tured. However, there is a marked difference in the
prominence of the
contrast
in Psalm 32, namely between vv 3-4 and 5 and 7, and be-
tween vv 9 and 11. Such prominent contrasts are
absent from Psalm
51
as a major feature of the structure (which is not to say that the
psalm
contains no contrasts). This analysis is presented in Chart II.
Reconstruction of the
Meaning: The Unity of the Psalm
The theme or thesis statement of the first
division is found in
vv
1-2. As previously mentioned, vv 3ff. are linked with the first two
verses
by a logical connective, which at its first occurrence takes on a
temporal
meaning. The reasoning seems to be that vv 3ff. explain the
grounds
of the statement of vv 1-2. Given the contrast between vv 3-4
and
vv 5 and 7, this suggests that the grounds are considered in a
twofold
manner, negatively and positively. Hence, the theme for this
division
reads "happy is the man whose sin is forgiven."
The theme of the second division is found in v
11. As stated, v 6
embodies
the introduction to this division, while v 8 gives the division
its
major structural feature. But though v 8 structures the division, it
is
not the key statement; the content of what David desires to teach
takes
precedence over the desire.
Vv 9 and 11 stand in contrast to each other,
with v 10 supplying
the
basis for the exhortation of vv 9 and 11. V 10 almost functions
264
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THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL
Constituent
Organization
DC
= Division Constituent
P
= Paragraph
PC
= Psalm Constituent
PCC
= Paragraph Cluster Constituent
PCl = Paragraph Cluster
S
= Section
SC
= Section Constituent
CHART II: Overview of
Psalm 32
like
a summary and for that reason may appear to be the most prom-
inent. But in this case, v 10 functions more like a
transition from the
negative
exhortation (warning) to the positive exhortation. Since the
declared
intent of these verses is to teach and since the teaching
focuses
on action more than knowledge ("the way which you should
go,"
v 8), the final positive exhortation is best identified as the thesis
statement
of this division. Hence, the phrasing of the theme of the
division
is "rejoice in the Lord you righteous ones," with its contrast
added
in parentheses.
The general flow of thought in the psalm moves
from the origi-
nal statement "happy is the man whose sin is
forgiven" to the exhor-
tation for the righteous to rejoice in the Lord. It is
remarkable that
the
man who needs forgiveness in vv 1-2 is identified with the righ-
teous and upright one in v 11. How does this transition
take place?
Two factors determine the relationship between
the divisions.
The
most obvious one is the strong conjunction txz-lf beginning v 6.
This
indicates that a logical conclusion is being drawn from what
precedes.
The relationship is one of grounds on which a conclusion is
BARENTSEN: PSALMS 51 AND 32 265
based.
The conclusion is then the prominent part and functions as the
head
of the body.
Second, an exhortation usually has more force
than the expe-
rience on which the exhortation is based. Now, vv 3-5,
7 mainly
relate
David's experience before and after his confession, so this is
not
the primary focus of the psalm. Rather, the declaration of the
intent
to teach dominates the psalm and focuses the attention on v 11.
This
line of evidence also supports the prominence of the second
division.
Thus, the first and second divisions are related
to each other as
grounds
and conclusion, experience and exhortation. The experience
is
only mentioned as support for the exhortation, so that the goal of
the
psalm is the teaching of sinners about the way they should go--to
rejoice
in the Lord.
Theological Analysis:
The Contents of the Psalm
The main thrust of the psalm consists of its
teaching on the need
for
confession. But two other areas are significant elements.
The need for confession
The psalm describes life as a path to walk, as
the way in which
we
should go (v 8). In this path there are two contrasting options.
The
use of contrast shows the pedagogical genius of the psalmist,
because
the options are either to remain in one's sin, separate from
God,
or to confess one's sin and have fellowship with God. The
choice
is either/or; no other option is given. The purpose is, of course,
"to
point out the path of true happiness to sinners.”49
Option 1 is to remain silent about one's sin and
not to acknowl-
edge
it to God. This results in a "roaring" all day long (v 3). This is
soon
recognized as judgment from God, and again the sorrow is
described,
but this time more vividly. The vitality of the sinner is
compared
to the earth, cracking under the heat of the summer. Thus,
Option
1 is clearly understood as undesirable because it incurs God's
judgment.
But in the exhortation, this is still
elaborated. Here the sinner is
compared
with the stubborn horse and mule. The sinner's silence is
not
due to ignorance, but to rebellion. On the other hand, these
beasts
are also animals which have no understanding. So although
the
sinner may be in rebellion against God, he also has to cope with
unclear
thinking (cf. Eph
49 Craigie, Psalms 1-50, 268.
266
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THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL
Thematic Outline of
Psalm 32
Psalm 32: 1-11 (Psalm) [Happy
is the man whose sin is forgiven. Therefore,] [do not be
stubborn,
but] rejoice in the Lord you righteous ones.
Psalm Constituent 1-5,7 (Division) (Role:
grounds of 6,8-11) Happy is the man
whose sin is forgiven.
Division
Constituent
1-2 (Paragraph) (Role: Head of 1-5, 7) Happy is the man
whose sin is forgiven.
Division
Constituent
3-4 (Section) (Role: grounds [neg.] for 1-2) I was silent so
[because of judgment] I was in misery.
Section Constituent 3 (Paragraph)
(Role: Head of 3-4) I was silent, so I was
in
misery.
Section Constituent 4 (Paragraph) (Role:
grounds of 3) [Because of my
silence] God judged me, so that I was in misery.
Division
Constituent
5, 7 (Section) (Role: grounds [pos.] for 1-2) God forgave
my sins [because of confession]. [As a result,
God is my Deliverer.]
Section
Constituent 5a (Paragraph) (Role: grounds of 5b) I confessed my
Sin.
Section Constituent 5b (Paragraph)
(Roles: Head of 5, 7; condition for 7)
God
forgave my sins [because of confession].
Section Constituent 7 (Paragraph)
(Role: consequence of 5b) [As a conse-
quence] God is my Deliverer.
Psalm Constituent 6,8-11 (Paragraph)
(Role: Head of the Body) [Do not be stub-
born,
but] rejoice in the Lord you righteous ones.
Division
Constituent
6 (Paragraph) (Role: introduction to 8-11) Pray to God
and be safe.
Division
Constituent
8-11 (Section) (Role: Head of 6, 8-11) [Do not be stub-
born, but] rejoice in the Lord you righteous
ones.
Section Constituent 8 (Paragraph)
(Role: orienter to 9-11) I will teach you
what to do.
Section Constituent 9-11 (Paragraph
Cluster) (Role: Head of 8-11) [Do not
be
stubborn but] rejoice in the Lord you righteous ones.
Paragraph Cluster Constituent 9 (Paragraph) (Role:
Head! [neg.] of
9-11) Do not be
stubborn.
Paragraph Cluster Constituent 10 (Paragraph) (Role:
summary of 9, 11)
He who trusts God
receives his lovingkindness.
Paragraph Cluster Constituent 11 (Paragraph) (Role:
Head2 [pos.] of
9-11) Rejoice in the
Lord you righteous ones.
BARENTSEN: PSALMS 51 AND 32 267
can
be brought near by bit and bridle--if this is the right interpreta-
tion of v 9c.50 Likewise, God can use
sorrows, which are the lot of the
wicked
(v 10), to draw the sinner to himself.
Option 2 is to acknowledge one's sin and confess
it before God.
The
concept is repeated three times in v 5. This shows that it is not a
formal
rehearsal of a list of sins, but a thorough exposure of one's sin
before
God. God responds with forgiveness, and thus deliverance is
experienced
(v 7).
In the exhortation, this too is expanded. Here,
confession is
identified
with trust in the Lord, highlighting the importance of a
right
heart attitude in confession. As a result, the sinner is now called
a
righteous and upright person who may delight in the mercies of the
Lord
(v 11). Option 2 is the desirable one because it is the proper
response
to God's dsH.
Universality of sin
In presenting the options, the psalmist does not
leave the reader
with
any choice but to be silent or to confess. The fact that each
reader
has sin about which to be silent or vocal is assumed. All need
confession.
Just as in Psalm 51, the three most frequent
words for sin here
are,
fwp, Nvf and, xFH (vv 1-2; 5). In vv 1-2
these words indicate that
man's
life is involved in all kinds of sin, and that sin stains all of his
life.
In v 5 these words show that all kinds of sin are subject to God's
forgiveness;
there is no sin which cannot be forgiven. Sin may be
universal,
but there is always hope in God's all comprehensive for-
giveness.
Human
responsibility
The exhortation in this psalm is a plea for
human action: one
must
turn to God. Thus, man's responsibility is emphasized, in con-
trast to Psalm 51, where God's sovereign grace was
emphasized. But
God's
sovereignty is not left out of the picture here. The fact that a
forgiven
person can be counted blessed (vv 1-2) implies that God has
been
at work in that person; judgment in v 5 testifies to God's sover-
eignty. Similarly, the following concepts indicate
aspects of God's
sovereign
grace: God is a hiding place (v 7); he surrounds the psalmist
with
songs of deliverance (v 7); he surrounds those who trust him
with
lovingkindness (v 10); trusting in the Lord implies
that he is sov-
ereign (v 10); and God sovereignly
uses misery to lead people to him-
self
(vv 3a, 4a, 9). So human responsibility is set in the context of
40 Ibid., 40.
268
GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL
divine
sovereign grace. Therefore, this responsibility is not autono-
mous, but must be exercised in dependence upon God,
submitting to
him
and acknowledging that his judgments are just. This is a respon-
sibility of faith, not of works.
CONCLUSION
Four propositions summarize the main theological
points drawn
from these two psalms: (1) Man is utterly,
always, from conception,
and
in every aspect of his relationship to God, sinful. (2) Man is
wholly
dependent on God for forgiveness and restoration before he
can
enjoy an undisturbed relationship with God. (3) Man's responsi-
bility is humbly and in faith to confess his sins to
God and to ack-
nowledge that his judgments are just. (4) Man,
once forgiven and
restored,
is to be happy about what the Lord has done for him, and
to
extol his virtues.
APPENDIX A
THE
NEED FOR STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Human thought is structured; the human mind
cannot function
in
utter chaos or at random--although admittedly it is not always
flawlessly
organized. It follows that human writings will usually evi-
dence a certain structure, which will vary according
to the language
and
culture of the writer. The exegete should consider such structure
in
his interpretation of the Bible.
Part of this task can be accomplished by
grammatical and syn-
tactical
observation. But since writings consist of more than a ran-
dom series of grammatical or syntactical phrases,
there is a wider
field
of analysis. This wider field may be called "paragraph" or "sec-
tion," depending on the size, but if a whole
document is analyzed it is
convenient
to speak about a discourse (a more technical title for a
larger
unit of communication, not for the common concept of dia-
logue). Analyzing the structure of such a discourse
may be called
"structural
analysis." Thus structural analysis accomplishes on a
broader
level what grammatical and syntactical analysis accomplishes
on
a more detailed level.
The concerns of this method are to reconstruct
the flow of the
argument
by an objective methodology which recognizes structural
devices
such as chiasm, repetition of key terms, and important struc-
tural markers. Unfortunately, the importance of
discourse structure
BARENTSEN: PSALMS 51 AND 32 269
for
the understanding of the Bible has not been as fully understood
and
used by exegetes as it might be. Thus, help on the structure of a
passage
is rarely available in the standard exegetical and critical com-
mentaries,51
though the value of the method is being increasingly
recognized.
This method can be very useful. It gives the
exegete a more
objective
tool to help him understand the flow of thought in a par-
ticular document. Such an objective tool in my
judgment, is sorely
needed
since the task of contextual analysis is often approached rather
intuitively.
And even though our intuitions may sometimes be right, a
more
objective method is needed to bridge the linguistic, cultural, and
religious
chasm between the ancient world and our own, and to make
certain
that our reconstruction of the meaning is extracted from the
text,
not imposed upon it.
51 Callow, Second Thessalonians, 15.
This
material is cited with gracious permission from:
Grace
Theological Seminary
www.grace.edu
Please
report any errors to Ted Hildebrandt at:
thildebrandt@gordon.edu