Getting
Started with Deuteronomy
By Ted Hildebrandt
Copyright © 2012
Introduction to Deuteronomy
The
title of the book of Deuteronomy is taken from a mis-translation of Deuteronomy
17:18 by the Greek Septuagint to deuteronomion meaning “second law.” This
came through the Latin Vulgate deuteronomium into our English title, with
the perspective that it is a “second law” 40 years after the first one given at
Mount Sinai. The reference in 17:18, however, refers to the king making “a
copy” of this law. The Hebrew title is “these are the words” and is taken from
the first words of the book. It refers to the words spoken by Moses on the
plains of Moab just prior to Israel’s entrance into the Promised Land. The book
of Numbers ends with Israel situated on the plains of Moab across the Jordan
River from Jericho (Num 33:48f). Deuteronomy picks up from there and concludes
with the death of Moses, the servant of the Lord, on Mount Nebo by these same
plains of Moab, just prior to Joshua leading them into the land of promise.
Deuteronomy can be understood from three perspectives. First, Deuteronomy
can be viewed as a last will and testament of Moses who was not allowed to
enter the Promised Land (3:23-28). It is a set of hortatory speeches
reflecting on Israel’s past rebellion and exhorting their faithfulness in the
future as they enter and settle in the land.
There are four main speeches by Moses. The first short speech, after
a preamble identifying the time, participants and location of the speech, rehearses
a retrospective review of Israel’s rebellions during the 40 year wilderness
wandering and God’s loyal love and provisions for them in fulfillment of his
promises to the forefathers (1:1-4:43).
The lengthy second speech (4:44-26:19) states the general laws and
requirements including a restatement of the Ten Commandments (Decalogue) and an
encouragement to respond with gratitude, fear, loyalty and love to God (4:44-11:32).
This speech goes on to give more specific directives regarding laws for
prophets, judges, kings, war, captives, family relations, centralized worship, feasts,
tithes and Levitical duties, as well as the seventh year cancellation of debts
(12:1-26:19).
The third speech is short (27:1- 28:68) and provides for document
preservation (27:2-8; cf. 31:26) and the recitation of the curses and blessings
from Mount Ebal and Mount Gerizim overlooking Shechem where Israel would renew
their covenant allegiance to the Lord. The fourth speech is a covenant renewal
ceremony (chs. 29-30).
The book concludes with the song and tribal blessings of Moses and the
commissioning of Joshua as the new leader (chs. 31-34). The death of Moses
(ch. 34) was probably recorded by Joshua who eulogizes “Since then, no prophet
has risen in Israel like Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face” (34:10). Such
last will and testament speeches are also seen with Joshua (Josh 23-24), Samuel
(1 Sam 12) and David (1 Kgs 2) as the responsibilities get passed on from one
leader to the next.
A second perspective from which Deuteronomy can be viewed is as a
suzerainty treaty between a suzerain (king) and a vassal/servant. The treaty
form is well known in the ancient Near East both with the Hittites (ca. 1400-1200
BC) at the time of Moses and the Assyrians (ca. 700 BC) around the time of
Hezekiah and Josiah. The book portrays itself as a covenant renewal ceremony.
The earlier Hittite treaty form fits better with the structure of Deuteronomy
as the later Assyrian treaties frequently lack the historical prologue and
blessings sections.
Deuteronomy
Preamble 1:1-5 names participants
and treaty setting
Historical Prologue 1:6-4:49 rehearses
suzerain’s past kindnesses
General Stipulations 5:1-11:32 gives general
laws and motivations for
loyalty
Specific Stipulations 12:1-26:19 details
laws on kings, prophets, judges,
the
poor, rituals, feasts, family relations
Document Clause 27:1-26 preserves the
document
Blessings and Curses 28:1-68 states obedience
brings blessings,
disobedience
results in curses
Witnesses 30:19; 31:19 calls on heavens
and earth, witness song
A third perspective from which Deuteronomy can be looked at is as a
legal code similar to the Code of Hammurabi. Both present laws concerning the
rights of the firstborn, slandered wives, adultery, rape among others. Thompson
makes comparisons between the Book of the Covenant law code (Exod 21-23) and
Deuteronomy (Thompson, 27, 43). One can also parallel the two Ten Commandments
texts found both in Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5. Note, for example, that in Exodus
20:11 the days of creation are cited as the reason behind the Sabbath
commandment while Deuteronomy 5:15 proffers the deliverance from Egypt as the
basis.
Content
of the book of Deuteronomy
The
book of Deuteronomy opens in the same place that Numbers left off--the plains
of Moab, east of the Jordan river in the fortieth year after they came out of
Egypt. Moses begins with his remembrance of God’s command to leave Horeb
[Mount Sinai] and the appointing of the leaders who were to help him judge
Israel. He oscillates back and forth between historical narration and
exhortation/advice. He rehearses how the twelve spies were sent out and how Israel
rebelled resulting in only Joshua and Caleb from the former generation of the
exodus entering the promised land. He narrates how Israel went around
peacefully, rather than fighting with, their ancestral brothers Edom (Esau),
Moab (from Lot) and Ammon (from Lot). They did, however, defeat Sihon and Og
(Amorites) in Transjordan and their land was parsed out to Reuben, Gad, and half
the tribe of Manasseh. The exhortation section in chapter 4 calls on Israel to
remember and not forget what God had done for them with a stern warning against
idolatry. Their sovereign Lord was a jealous God and one who had loved and
chosen their forefathers. Chapters 1-4 fit well with the Hittite covenant
pattern of the historical prologue by reviewing the history of God’s
benevolence and encouraging Israel’s loyalty.
Chapter 5 begins the general stipulations (chs. 5-11). The Ten
Commandments (Decalogue) opens this section in apodictic fashion based on the
fact that God brought them out of Egypt. The Shema (Deut 6:4, “Hear, O
Israel: The LORD our God, the LORD is one.”) is recited daily by Jews and makes
a clear declaration of monotheism followed by the response that he is to be
loved with all one’s heart, soul and strength. Chapter 6 elucidates what it
means to love God in terms of fearing God and obeying his laws. Directives for
war and taking the Promised Land are developed in chapter 7. God is portrayed
as a compassionate father in Deuteronomy 8-10 caring for his people with manna
and giving them a land flowing with milk and honey. They are to remember what
the Lord did for them. Moses re-narrates the golden calf rebellion at Sinai
and admonishes Israel to fear the Lord and walk in his ways by serving, obeying
and loving him. Chapter 11 finishes this section with blessings and curses and
an exhortation to teach these things to their children and write them on the
doorframes of their houses. This “general stipulations” section stresses the
broad requirements and underlying motives for obedience, fear, love, and loyalty.
The next section is the detailed stipulations (chs. 12-26). It has
apodictic type laws (“you shalt not…”; 14:22; 15:1; 16:19; 17:1 etc.) as well
as causitic or case laws (“if a person … then…”; 22:6-8; 23:21-23; 24:10-12
etc.). Here Moses lays the foundation of the great institutions in Israel:
prophets (13:1-3; 18:9-22), judges (16:18ff.), kingship (17:14-20), Levitical
priests (18:1-8), cities of refuge (ch. 19), as well as ritual functions such
as feasts (ch. 16), clean/unclean (ch. 14), tithes/offerings (ch. 26) and the
centralized sanctuary where God’s name would dwell (ch. 12). There is another
chapter on war (ch. 20; cf. 7) and the strong warnings against idolatry are again
reiterated (13:2; 16:21f.; 20:18). The seventh year with its cancellation of
debts and freeing of slaves (ch. 15) and family guidelines for divorce, marrying
a captive woman, rights of the firstborn (ch. 24), punishment of a rebellious
son (ch. 21) and other marriage violations (ch. 22) are all detailed here.
Great compassion is expressed for the poor, aliens, orphans, and widows (15:7ff.;
24:14f.; 16:11, 14). There was also to be consideration for animals (25:4;
22:6), trees (20:19f) and the land itself (21:23; 24:4).
The book finishes with instructions for the preservation of this
law by writing it on plastered stones on Mount Ebal (27:4). The tribes reciting
the curses were to stand on Mount Ebal and the tribes announcing the blessings
on the opposite Mount Gerizim (ch. 27-28). Moses holds a covenant renewal
ceremony and Joshua is installed as the new leader (chs. 29-30). The reading
of this book at the Feast of Tabernacles is directed (ch. 31). The famous Song
of Moses (ch. 32) praises God for his care for Israel as their rock, father and
creator. After the song Moses gathers the assembly proclaiming, “They are not
just idle words for you—they are your life” (32:47). Moses blesses the tribes in
a manner reminiscent of Jacob’s tribal blessing in Genesis 49. The final
chapter records Moses’ death on Mount Nebo and Joshua taking the reins of
leadership (ch. 34).
Critical approaches to Deuteronomy
Traditionally critical theories have looked at Deuteronomy in
two ways. First, from the old source critical approach, which is based on the
centralization of worship reforms of Hezekiah (2 Kgs 18, ca. 700 BC) and
especially Josiah’s finding of the “Book of the Law” (2 Kgs 22-23; ca. 621 BC).
It should be noted that Deuteronomy 12, the key passage for centralization of
worship, never mentions a particular place where God’s name would dwell.
Indeed, Mount Ebal is the place that is specified as to where the altar and public
documentation of Deuteronomy should be established (27:4-5). Leaving the place
of the sanctuary unnamed facilitates shifts that would later take place from
Shechem, Gibeon (Josh 9:27; 1 Kgs 3:4), Shiloh and ultimately to Jerusalem (Jer
7:12).
The prohibitions against sacred pillars (16:22) and the worship of
sun, moon and stars (17:3) and the celebration of Passover (ch. 16; 2 Kgs
23:22) also give critics grounds for a Josianic time frame. The “Book of the Law”
(torah) found by Josiah (2 Kgs 23:1-3) is the same term used in
Deuteronomy to refer to itself (Deut 29:21; 30:10, 26; cf. Josh 1:8). Critics
suggest that Josiah was trying to continue Hezekiah’s reforms and that rather
than finding the book of the law of Moses, he and his supporters wrote or
compiled it to support their reforms. This is contrary to claims in Deuteronomy
that Moses wrote it (31:9, 24; 33:4). Thus Deuteronomy is identified as the D
document of the JEDP source theory for the formation of the Pentateuch. They
confidently assert that Deuteronomy is certainly not Mosaic, although some of
the traditions may go back to him.
The other way Deuteronomy is viewed is to harvest the insights of
M. Noth who saw the influence of what he called “Deuteronomistic History” as shaping
a huge swath of the Old Testament historical books from Joshua-2 Kings. They
see Joshua-2 Kings as redacted together by a single or multiple editors or even
in a Deuteronomistic School that applied the law in new ways to each successive
generation resulting in a unified perspective of history from Deuteronomy
through 2 Kings in what has been labeled “Deuteronomistic History [DH or Dtr].”
This can be seen in the theology of the name (12:5, 11) and the shift from
God’s dwelling in the tabernacle or temple to his dwelling in heaven (Deut
26:15; 1 Kgs 3:2; 5:17; 8:17, 27). Joshua, for example, picks up common
Deuteronomic phrases such as “be strong and courageous” (Deut 3:28; Josh 1:9),
among others (Weinfeld, ABD). While it is fascinating to trace the themes
intertextually from Deuteronomy through 2 Kings, there are other explanations
other than editors that may explain the foundational role of Deuteronomy in the
shaping of Israel’s religion.
Theology
God in Deuteronomy
The
book of Deuteronomy is a very theological book. Yahweh is portrayed as the
suzerain (great king) who makes and keeps his covenant with Israel, his vassal
(4:23, 31:9; 29:1, 12). He who is one (Shema, 6:4) has maintained his
loyal love (hesed; 5:10; 7:9, 12) to Israel as demonstrated in his mighty
acts on their behalf as they journeyed through the wilderness (3:24; 4:33; 8:19),
and by giving them his law (10:2) and the land. He was a faithful God who had
chosen them and placed his love upon them keeping the oath that he had sworn to
their forefathers (7:7f; ). They, in turn, were to respond by fearing the
Lord, walking in his ways and serving him with all their hearts and souls
(10:12ff). It is he who defends the cause of the orphans, widows and aliens
(10:18). God is a jealous God, demanding exclusive love and objecting to any pursuit
of false gods or idols (4:16, 23-29). God is merciful (4:31) and loving
(4:37), yet his fierce anger is frequently displayed when the covenant
relationship is violated (9:18f; 31:29). God dwells in heaven (26:15), yet he
is also the God of history so his mighty acts of delivering them from Egypt are
not to be forgotten (4:34; 6:21-23; 7:18f). His acts of redemption are to be
remembered, rehearsed and taught to their children (4:9; 6:7-9; 11:19; 31:12f;
32:46f). To forget is a problem. It is in history that Israel meets Yahweh
(cf. Thompson, 71ff). While the transcendence of the divine is well noted,
there is a closeness as the divine word is “very near you, it is in your
mouth…” (30:12-14).
People of God
The
people of God were a chosen community not “because they were more numerous than
other people, for you were the fewest of all peoples. But it was because the
Lord loved you and kept the oath he swore to your forefathers that he brought
you out…” (7:7f). They were chosen not because of their righteousness (9:4ff) but
were brought into the Promised Land because of the wickedness of the nations
God was driving out before them. The whole community was elect (14:1, 21) and
McConville (IVP, 188f.) notes that the term “brother” occurs in “unexpected
places” in reference to slaves and debtors (15:3, 7, 12). There was to be special
care extended to the orphans, widows and aliens (14:29; 24:17; 26:12f).
Warnings against the betrayal of covenant loyalty by idolatry and worship of
other gods were abundant (4:28; 6:14; 12:30f; 32:16f). Instead Israel was to
love, fear, serve, obey and walk in the ways of the Lord their God
(10:12-11:1). In Deuteronomy the foundations of the basic institutions of the
Israelite community are prescribed (kings, prophets, judges, priests). The
people are united as they recite his mighty acts when they offer the first
fruits of the land (Deut 26:5-10).
Wisdom and Deuteronomy
Weinfeld
has developed the connection between Deuteronomy and wisdom literature.
Proverbs, Deuteronomy and the Egyptian Wisdom of Amenomope all refer to things
as an “abomination to the Lord” (Deut 25:13-16; Prov 11:1; 20:10, 23), discuss the
evil of changing weights and measures (Deut 25:13-16; Prov 20:10), and regulate
slave and master relations (Deut 23:16; Prov 30:10). He also notes the stress
on wisdom and understanding (4:6). It is interesting that in Exodus 18:13-27
Moses appoints judges who are “capable men who fear God, trustworthy men who
hate gain” but in Deuteronomy (1:9-18) they are men of “understanding and full
of knowledge” (Weinfeld, ABD).
Land
Finally,
the land concept is featured in Deuteronomy. The land is seen as a good land
flowing with milk and honey (11:9-11; 26:9). Its crops of wheat, barley, figs,
grapes, olive oil and pomegranates are the produce of this good land (8:7-10)
resulting not from river irrigation but from rain provided or withheld
depending on their obedience from the divine suzerain who personally watered
the land (11:10-17). The land is given as a gift from God to them based on the
promise to their forefathers (8:1; 31:20). Hence, it is the Promised Land.
They had not earned it or built its flourishing cities (6:10f.; 9:6). They
should not forget the Lord or go after other gods, thereby defiling the land
and resulting in their being driven in exile from it (28:64f).
Questions to think about
1)
Compare and contrast the Book of the Covenant (Exod 21-23) and Deuteronomy.
2) Compare and contrast the Ten Commandments in Exod 20 and Deut 5.
3) How is the notion of war presented and God seen as a warrior?
4) How are the themes of divine love, election, and anger developed?
5) How is the theme of God’s revelation of himself in history developed?
6) How are the institutions of the kingship, judges, and prophecy developed?
7) What are the roles of the Levitical priests in Deuteronomy?
8) How is God portrayed in Deuteronomy? What metaphors are used? What does he
do?
9) How are human choices, consequences and destinies featured in Deuteronomy?
10) What key phrases are shared by Deuteronomy and Joshua?